1. Sustainable water-resources development of the Amazon basin

B. Braga, E. Salati, and H. Mattos de Lemos

Introduction

The Amazon region includes the greatest area of tropical rain forests and the largest river basin in the world. Contrary to popular belief, the region comprises a great number of different ecosystems, with varied geological, geomorphological, soil and climatic characteristics, resulting in a highly diversified flora and fauna. In spite of its immense natural resources - huge amounts of wood, water, and rich mineral deposits - scientists today are convinced that its greatest value lies in the vast biodiversity and the potential locked up within it. In the Brazilian Amazon, the approximate value of the known mineral resources (iron, bauxite, copper, gold, manganese, nickel, silver, and tin) have been estimated at $l,600bn (Comision Amazonica de Desarrollo y Medio Ambiente, 1994). The value of the biodiversity of the region is not known yet, although the market value of the existing commercial wood was estimated at $1,700bn (Mattos de Lemos, 1990).

A 1982 US National Academy of Sciences report estimated that a typical 4-square-mile patch of rain forest may contain 750 species of trees, 125 kinds of mammals, 400 types of birds, 100 of reptiles, and 60 of amphibians. Each type of tree may support more than 400 insect species. Just for comparison, the temperate forests of France contain only about 50 species of trees. As one of the last unexplored regions of the earth, the Amazon exerts much fascination over the imagination of mankind, especially among those who live in less luxuriant ecological settings (Repetto, 1988). Since the fall of the myth which professed the Amazon to be the "lungs of the world," scientists have attempted to understand its precise influence on the maintenance of the global climate system. Roughly half of the rain that falls in the Amazon is generated inside the region, resulting in a hot and very humid climate throughout most of the basin.

The largest part of the Amazon basin is a plain below 200 m above sea level, more than 3,400 km wide from east to west and 2,000 km long from north to south. This large plain is surrounded in the north by the Guyana plateau, at 600-700 m, in the south by the Brazilian plateau with an average height of 700 m, and in the west by the Andes mountain range rising to heights above 4,000 m. The main river system, namely Amazonas Solimões-Ucayali, extends for 6,671 km, which is 91 km longer than the Nile river - once considered the longest in the world. The Amazon river, with more than 1,000 tributaries, discharges into the Atlantic ocean between 200,000 and 220,000 cubic metres per second - about 60 times the rate of the Nile. The discharge of the Amazon river is equivalent to 15.47 per cent of all the fresh water entering the oceans each day (Mattos de Lemos, 1990). Although the gradient of the river is very pronounced in the Andean region, from the foothills to the estuary, the gradient drops only 107 m between Iquitos in Peru and the estuary in Brazil over 2,375 km. The water level varies considerably during the year from 6-10 m near the mouth to between 10 and 15 m in the middle stretch.

The high dependency of the population and the region's economy on the waters of the river, in terms of fresh water for domestic use, fishing activities, transportation, and energy generation, makes protection of the rivers and lakes a top priority - particularly against pollution, overfishing, erosion, mangrove destruction, and drainage of marshy areas. The water quality in the basin is still very good (the amount of dilution is enormous). New techniques for the recovery of the used mercury in gold mines in the Brazilian Amazon are underway. In this huge waterway live approximately 2,000 species of fish, more than all the aquatic fauna found in the Atlantic ocean. The quantity of animal protein from these fish that can be sustainably exploited is potentially enormous. This could provide a sensible alternative to efforts to produce animal protein from cattle raising - an activity extremely destructive to the Amazon ecosystem.

Even though the Amazon region has more than 40,000 km of roads (the majority are still unpaved), the rivers continue to be the main corridors for transportation with several thousand km of waterways navigable more than 90 per cent of the time. The alternatives for energy production using resources of the region include hydropower, fossil fuels (oil and gas), biomass, and solar energy. With respect to hydropower, the best sites are in the surrounding mountains, especially on the Andean side. Important hydropower reserves can also be found on the Amazonian plain, where Brazil has about 45 per cent of its hydropower potential. However, the reservoirs for this purpose cover extensive areas, and therefore their proposed construction has met strong opposition from environmentalists.

This paper describes the Amazonian basin from a physical and ecological point of view and indicates the current tendencies for sustainable use of its water resources. It has a first chapter on the natural system where the hydrology, meteorology, and ecology of the region is discussed. The second chapter deals with the water use for hydropower and navigation in the basin and the third chapter describes the legal and institutional arrangements in this basin at the Brazilian national level and in the realm of the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation.

The natural system

General description

The so-called "Amazon region" extends its limits beyond the Amazon river basin. This "Amazonian dominion" (figure 1) comprises nine South American countries including, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, French Guyana, Peru, Venezuela, and Suriname over an area of approximately 7.5 million km². Besides the Amazon river basin this dominion includes part of the Tocantins and Orinoco river basins and some small basins draining directly to the Atlantic. The Brazilian Amazon represents approximately 50 per cent of the country. In 1966 a presidential decree instituted the Legal Amazon which encompasses today eight states (Acre, Amazonas, Pará, Roraima, Amapá, Rondônia, Mato Grosso and Tocantins) and part of the state of Maranhão. The population of this area is 18 million distributed among 629 municipalities with a progressively high urban concentration (approximately 60 per cent).

Fig. 1: The Amazonian dominion in South America

The total drainage area of the Amazon river basin is 6,112,000 km². The average annual precipitation is of the order of 2,460 mm/year and the average annual flow 209,000 m³/s which implies a specific flow of 34.2 l/s/km². The average annual evapotranspiration totals 1,382 mm/year. As it can be appreciated in figure 2 this is by far the largest basin in the world in terms of discharge. Some of the tributaries of the Amazon are among the longest rivers in the world. Inside the Brazilian territory the Amazon basin occupies 3,900,000 km², with an average annual precipitation of 2,220 mm/year, a specific flow of 30.8 l/s/km² and an evapotranspiration of 1,250 mm/year.

The Tocantins river basin, which is partially inside the Amazonian dominion, has an area of 557,000 km² and an average precipitation of 1,660 mm/year. The flow at the mouth is 11,800 m³/s with a specific flow of 15,6 l/s/km². The evapotranspiration is in the order of 1,168 mm/year. The rivers from the Amapá state, draining to the Atlantic ocean, between the Oiapoque and the Araguari river basin, comprise an area of 76,000 km². The precipitation in this region is of 2,950 mm/year, being the total flow in this stretch of 3,660 m³/s. The specific flow is of 48.2 l/s/km². The evapotranspiration is in the order of 1,431 mm/year.

Fig. 2: Comparative chart for average flow of Amazon river with other rivers in the world (Salati et al., 1983)

While being a region with a predominantly hot and humid climate, and having a vegetal cover of primarily forest, the Amazon is far from being a natural homogeneous region. Recent studies, taking into account both the biotic and the abiotic characteristics of the ecosystems, have identified 104 systems inside the Amazon, according to the classification of the Natural Landscape Systems (IBGE, 1995). Soils are particularly of low fertility, but are generally covered with a biota extremely rich in species, showing one of the largest natural biodiversities on the planet. The low soil fertility, particularly over the so-called A stable ground surface, together with the climatic conditions, have turned out to be one of the main difficulties for the implementation of a colonization based on agricultural activities.

Although there is little scientific and technical knowledge about the region, large advances have been attained, particularly in the past 30 years with the creation of some specialized institutions such as the National Institute for Research of the Amazon, in Manaus and the State of Pará Emilio Goelde Museum, in Belém. In the past 30 years the number of published works about the Amazon has been growing exponentially, addressing both the biotic and the abiotic aspects. Many of those have been spread out through an incredible number of publications, calling for some efforts to compile and systematize the available information in the form of books and technical journals. Among the scientific journals can be mentioned the Acta Amazônica, the Amazoniana and the Museu Goelde Bulletin. Some of the books presenting extracts from publications are the following: Amazônia: Development, Interaction and Ecology, by E. Salati et al. (1983); The Amazon, edited by Herald Sioli (1984); and Amazonian Deforestation and Climate, edited by J.H. Gash et al. (1996).

Human occupation of the Amazon Region after its discovery by the Europeans can be divided into three phases. The first phase is from 1500 to 1840 and corresponds with the recognition and occupation of the territory. During this period, environmental impact was small, but the interaction of the European settlers with the Indians produced a drastic reduction of native tribes, particularly along the rivers. It has been estimated that more than 3 million Indians lived in an area corresponding to the present Brazilian Amazon. This population was reduced to approximately 160,000 individuals by the second half of the twentieth century. The second phase of colonization covers the period 1840-1912, and is characterized by a drastic increase of rubber exploitation and other plant cultivation such as chestnut trees, as well as hunting and fishing for a few species of animals and fishes. The economic centres of Manaus and Belém experienced considerable growth during this period, and the Brazilian Amazon region received 600,000-800,000 immigrants, particularly from the Brazilian north-east.

In the past five decades a period of modern and intensive colonization can be identified. Roads were built, crossing the region from east to west and from north to south (figure 3). The four-century riparian occupation, particularly along large rivers, expanded inland through the so-called "terra-firma" ecosystem, causing a large environmental and cultural impact on the indigenous communities living in these areas. This wave of modern colonization brought about an incredible increase of deforestation activities. The cleared land, which was only 0.5 per cent of the Amazon region by 1970, expanded to 469,978 km² or 9.4 per cent of the Legal Amazon by August 1994 (Barbosa, 1996). The transformation forces prevailing during those decades are associated with the exploitation and use of the natural resources, renewable and non renewable. Main activities were associated with road and hydroelectric plant construction, oil extraction, exploitation of forest and fishing resources, cattle raising, tourism and commerce, particularly following the installation of the duty free Manaus zone.

Fig. 3: Highways crossing Brazil and other countries in South America (Salati et al., 1990)

Ecological characteristics of the region

Geomorphology

Over most of its extensive area, the Amazon river basin is formed by geological clusters with altitudes below 250 m above sea level. These lowlands are limited in the west by a semi-circle formed by the Andes mountains with altitudes of over 4,000 m. To the north they are limited by the Amazon residual plateau (Guyana plateau) with an average altitude of only 1,200 m, but showing high summits such as the Neblina peak of 3,014 m. To the south, the Amazon plateau is limited by the Brazilian central plateau with average altitudes varying from 100-400 m. In this way, the Amazon basin has the general format of a horse-shoe with the open side turned to the Atlantic ocean. This physical structure and its geographic position, crossed by the equator, has established important regional characteristics. The water vapour carried from the Atlantic ocean by the trade winds (hot and humid) and the abundant solar energy determine the climate prevailing in the region, with high rainfall rates.

Recent studies have shown that the Amazon river starts at the Nevado de Misme, a mountain in the south of Peru. The waters spring up from the north side of the Chila mountain range in a slope called "quebrada" Carhuasanta, 5,300 m above sea level. The main contributor to the Amazon river, the Apurimac - Ucayalí runs towards the north and, after joining the Marañon river, to the east. Subsequently it takes in water from the Napo river just before crossing the frontier between Peru and Brazil, and is then known as the Solimões river. In Manaus the Solimões takes in the Negro and, from there to its mouth is called the Amazon river. Nowadays, the Amazon river is considered the biggest river in the world, not only in terms of its water volume but also in length, slightly surpassing the Nile at 6,671 km. The real length of the Amazon river is still unknown due to difficulties associated with the exact location of its mouth.

It is important to stress how small is the slope of the main course of the Amazon river; from Iquitos, Peru, to the Marajó island estuary, the river runs for 2,375 km with a total drop of only 107 m. However, an important feature of this relatively flat area is that it is cut by several tributaries, which have carved deep channels with steep slopes at 45 degrees. Then, when considering the large amount of flat land below the forest, what is actually found is a scarred area, impairing the implementation of agricultural activity and highly susceptible to erosion when the original vegetal cover is removed.

Climate

Solar energy

The quantity of solar energy reaching the upper atmosphere in the Amazon region varies very little, since it belongs to the equatorial region. By taking the city of Manaus as an example, we will verify that the maximum of solar energy is equivalent to 885 calories per cm²/day in January with a minimum of 730 calories in June. In the same way, the length of the diurnal period has also a short variation, going from a minimum of 11.36 hours to a maximum of 12.38 hours. The available energy at ground or at tree top level is controlled by the nebulosity, which is very large in most of the Amazon region, particularly along its central part. The average insolation and the nebulosity are shown in tables 1 and 2, and the incident energy, measured in Manaus, is in table 3, for years 1977-1979.

The most important factor for heat balance is associated with the high nebulosity index and the high values of air humidity. As a result, the temperature remains quite stable with little variation on either daily or annual average.

Air temperature

One of the important characteristics of the Amazon region is the small temperature variation, particularly in lower altitude areas forming the large Amazon plateau. In the city of Belém, for example, the highest monthly temperature is 26.9°C, occurring in November and the lowest is 24°C, in March. In Manaus, the highest monthly average is 27.9°C and the lowest is 25.8°C, both occurring in September. In the city of Iquitos, Peru, the highest monthly average is 32°C occurring in November and the lowest is 32°C, in July. This isothermical condition is a consequence of the large quantity of atmospheric water vapour and the small variation in available solar energy during the year. Table 4 shows the monthly average temperatures occurring in some of the Brazilian Amazon cities.

Table 1: Mean daily hours of sunlight measured in Amazon cities (hours and minutes)

N (OMM)

Stations

Lat.

Long.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

82,067

Iauaretê

0°36'N

69°12'W

4:24

3:54

3:54

3:30

3:36

3:42

3:48

4:42

5:12

4:48

4:47

4:24

82,331

Manaus

3°08'S

60°01'W

3:48

3:55

3:36

3:48

5:24

6:54

7:54

8:12

7:29

6:36

5:54

4:54

82,106

Uaupês

0°08'S

67°05'W

5:13

5:30

5:13

4:31

4:54

4:54

5:13

6:00

6:36

6:07

6:00

5:30

82,741

Taperinha

2°24'S

54°51'W

3:12

3:25

3:24

4:11

6:05

7:49

8:30

8:18

5:43

5:05

4:12

3:29

82,191

Belém

1°28'S

48°29'W

5:01

4:00

3:17

4:13

6:18

7:55

8:37

7:31

7:48

7:55

7:18

6:49

82,243

Santarém

2°45'S

54°42'W

4:35

3:43

3:25

3:48

4:42

5:54

6:49

7:49

7:24

7:24

6:30

6:05

INEMET (1979).

Table 2: Mean cloud cover (in tenths of sky covered)

N (OMM)	Stations	Lat.	Long.	Jan.	Feb.	Mar.	Apr.	May	June	July	Aug.	Sept.	Oct.	Nov.	Dec.	Average
82,704	Cruzeiro do Sul	7°38'S	72°36'W	8.4	8.5	8.4	8.0	7.4	6.5	5.7	5.6	6.9	7.8	8.0	8.2	7.4
82,113	Barcelos	0°58'S	62°57'W	7.1	7.2	7.1	7.7	7.7	7.2	6.7	6.3	6.5	6.8	6.4	6.8	7.0
82,425	Coari	4°05'S	63°08'W	6.7	6.7	6.8	6.7	6.4	5.6	5.2	5.1	5.4	6.0	6.0	6.3	6.1
82,212	Fonte Boa	2°32'S	66°01'W	7.3	7.1	7.2	7.7	7.2	6.9	6.8	6.3	6.3	6.6	6.7	7.0	6.9
82,727	Humaitá	7°31'S	63°02'W	7.5	7.6	7.4	7.0	5.6	3.9	3.1	3.3	5.0	6.2	6.6	7.0	5.8
82,067	Iauaretê	0°36'N	69°12'W	7.6	7.7	8.0	8.2	8.0	7.9	7.7	7.4	7.3	7.7	7.5	7.5	7.7
82,331	Manaus	3°08'S	60°01'W	8.3	8.4	8.5	8.5	7.9	6.9	6.4	6.1	6.9	7.6	7.8	8.0	7.6
82,103	Taracuá	8°10'S	70°46'W	7.3	7.4	7.2	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.4	7.0	6.6	7.2	7.2	7.1	7.3
82,106	Uaupês	0°08'S	67°05'W	8.0	7.8	7.9	8.2	8.1	8.0	7.7	7.4	7.1	7.7	7.6	7.7	7.8
82,741	Taperinha	2°24'S	54°41'W	8.2	8.3	8.2	7.5	5.9	3.6	2.9	3.6	6.4	7.4	7.7	8.1	6.5
82,191	Belém	1°28'S	48°29'W	7.7	8.3	8.6	8.2	7.4	6.1	5.6	5.2	5.6	5.5	6.0	6.8	6.8
82,243	Santarém	2°45'S	54°42'W	6.5	7.0	7.2	7.1	6.5	5.4	4.5	3.7	3.9	4.5	5.0	5.5	5.6

INEMET (1979).

Table 3: Global radiation at surface (Q_s) in Manaus; measurements made by Eppley pyranometer (in cal.cm^-2.day^-1)

Year	Jan.	Feb.	Mar.	Apr.	May	June	July	Aug.	Sep.	Oct.	Nov.	Dec.
1977	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	425	348	325	360	267
								(51)	(40)	(36)	(41)	(30)
1978	295	277	305	323	335	432	404	462	486	499	407	363
	(33)	(31)	(34)	(38)	(42)	(57)	(52)	(56)	(56)	(56)	(46)	(41)
1979	337	395	412	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	(38)	(36)	(44)

Note: The numbers in brackets show the percentage in relation to solar radiation reaching the top of local atmosphere (Q₀).

Ribeiro et al. (1982).

Precipitation

Rainfall is quite irregular in the Amazon region, as far as spatial distribution is concerned. Figure 4 shows the monthly variation from 34 meteorologic stations. It is immediately obvious that there is a difference in the distribution of monthly precipitation between stations located on the south side of the equator and ones located on the north. The south stations show a dry period from May to August, while the ones from the north indicate, in the same period, the maximum values of precipitation. Another important observation is that precipitation increases going westward, reducing, in the same way, the length of the dry periods. In the north-east of the Amazon basin there is almost no drought through the year.

From the point of view of total precipitation, the minimum values observed for the Amazon basin are in the order of 1,600 mm, along the transition area towards the central Brazilian plateau, and the maximum occur on the slopes of the Andes mountains, showing precipitation above 6,000 mm/year. Precipitation of over 3,000 mm can also be observed on the shores of Amapá and the northern region of the Marajó island. Figure 4 indicates the rainfall distribution and Figure 5 the lines of equal monthly average precipitation (isohyets).

Water balance - origin and recirculation of water vapour in the Amazonia

The water balance area of the Amazon basin is of 6,112,000 km². The average yearly precipitation is 2,400 mm/year and the flow of the Amazon river is 209,000 m³/s. The evapotranspiration corresponds then, to a value of 1,382 mm/year. These are the data published by DNAEE in 1992. Based on this information, the Amazon basin takes in a total of 15.04 x 10¹² m³ of water per year, discharges to the ocean a total of 6.59 x 10¹² m³ of water per year and returns to the atmosphere, through the process of evapotranspiration, a total of 8.45 x 10¹² m³ of water per year. The importance of the water vapour generated by evapotranspiration is absolutely relevant for the dynamic process, leading to the formation of clouds and originating the precipitation of the whole region. Research was developed during the 1970s and 1980s with the objective of determining the importance of this large vapour mass on the process of cloud formation and precipitation on the Amazon region. There were three lines of investigation (Salati et al., 1984). The first one was directed to the establishment of the water balance for the Amazon basin as a whole as well as for other basins of importance. The second one was to determine the water vapour fluxes, using the available information of radio wave analysis. The third line aimed to determine the spatial distribution of oxygen¹⁸ and deuterium isotopes in the water. The combination of these studies provided the following conclusions:

(a) the primary origin of the water vapour that penetrates the Amazon river is the Atlantic ocean, as shown in figures 6, 7, 8, and 9, which indicate the flux of the water vapour;

(b) the vapour flux is higher in the region of lower longitude, diminishing towards the west. The precipitable water, however, increases from the east towards the west. The total water vapour from the ocean is of the same order of magnitude as the water vapour produced by evapotranspiration from the forest of the Amazon basin; and

(c) the variation of the spatial distribution of oxygen¹⁸ concentrations in rain water is lower than expected assuming the precipitation had had the Atlantic Ocean as a single source of water vapour.

Table 4: Mean temperatures for several regions of the Amazon river basin

Table 4: Mean temperatures for several regions of the Amazon river basin (cont.)

Fig. 4: Rain distribution on the Amazonic basin in relation to the following stations: (1) Boa Vista; (2) Iauaretê; (3) Tarauacá; (4) Uaupês; (5) Barcelos; (6) Manaus; (7) Benjamin Constant; (8) Fonte Boa; (9) Coari; (10) Cruzeiro do Sul; (11) Caruari; (12) Rio Branco; (13) Porto Velho; (14) Humaitá; (15) Alto Tapajós; (16) Taperinha; (17) Conceição do Araguaia; (18) Imperatriz; (19) Belém; (20) Clevelândia; (21) Amapá; (22) Macapá; (23) Parintins; (24) Porto Nacional; (25) Cuiabá; (26) Pirenópolis; (27) Serra do Cachimbo; (28) Jacareacanga; (29) Altamira; (30) Tema; (31) Average of the region; (32) Iquitos; (33) Apolo; (34) Average of the region (Salati et al., 1983)

Fig. 5: Normal precipitation in the Amazon basin in mm/yr (Salati et al., 1978)

As a consequence of the above observations, a model for water vapour recirculation has been proposed. According to the model, the rain from a specific region originates from clouds formed by a mixture of primary water vapour coming from the ocean, and also from the water vapour from plant transpiration. The model has allowed, in the first instance, for a better explanation of rain distribution and the observed spatial concentrations of oxygen.¹⁸ The main consequence of these conclusions is that the dynamic balance of the atmosphere above the Amazon region is dependent on its green coverage, that is, on its forest.

Fig. 6: Values of vectorial field
. Mean of period 1972-1975, March, obtained for the 5° latitude x 5° longitude squares (1 cm = 2000 g_v/cm). Broken line: precipitable water in mm (Marques et al., 1979)

This conclusion indicates that the forest is not just a simple consequence of the climate but that the present climatic conditions are dependent on the forest itself. From this point of view, the geomorphological characteristics, as well as the geographical situation, allowing the interception of moist and humid winds into the general circulation of the atmosphere, and the intertropical convergence, lead to factors determining the establishment of a hot and humid climate, which enables the development of an equatorial forest. The development of the Amazonian ecosystem through time and its present state of equilibrium, has produced the water balance as it is known today. The primary source of water vapour is the Atlantic ocean. However, studies of the water vapour dynamics of the region have indicated that only about 50 per cent of the present precipitation originates from this primary source of water vapour. The indigenous plants which have developed under the initial conditions of the evolving ecosystem, are today the basic constituents and, as such, basic elements for the established equilibrium, supplying through evapotranspiration the other 50 per cent of water vapour needed to produce the present level of rainfall. This maturing of the Amazonian ecosystem took place through several stages of equilibria and of selective and progressive experiments, in parallel with a constant and dynamic interaction between the biosphere and the atmosphere.

Fig. 7: Values of vectorial field
. Mean of period 1972-1975, September, obtained for the 5° latitude x 5° longitude squares (1 cm = 2000 g_v/cm). Broken line: precipitable water in mm (Marques et al., 1979)

This leads to the conclusion that a large-scale deforestation would affect not only the biosphere but also the prevailing climatic conditions, including the water balance of the Amazon region and its surrounding area. Based on this information, Salati (1983) reached the following conclusions:

(a) Overall, deforestation will change the volume of water along the basin, increasing river flows during the rainy seasons while the diminishing volumes of groundwater reservoirs will reduce river flows during dry periods. A reduction of the forest area will imply less availability of water vapour in the atmosphere and, will lead to a reduced rainfall, particularly during dry periods. Climate change may take place, causing a long, characteristic dry period, with a water deficit in the soil and a broader variation of temperature;

(b) since the Amazon region is a source of water vapour for surrounding regions, large-scale deforestation will cause a reduction of the water vapour which is the source of rain in the central region of South America. Therefore, deforestation would bring about a reduction of the potential hydroelectric power available to some Brazilian regions;

(c) the solar energy reaching the region at tree top level is about 420 calories per cm² per day. It is estimated that 50-60 per cent of this energy is utilized for the evapotranspiration process within the forest system. In this way, deforestation changes the energy balance. A large portion of the energy utilized by the plants to stimulate water evaporation, either by transpiration or by direct evaporation of the intercepted water, would instead be used for warming up the surrounding air.

Fig. 8: Values of vectorial field
. Mean of period 1972-1975, June, obtained for the 5° latitude x 5° longitude squares (1 cm = 2000 g_v/cm). Broken line: precipitable water in mm (Marques et al., 1979)

Fig. 9: Values of vectorial field
. Mean of period 1972-1975, December, obtained for the 5° latitude x 5° longitude squares (1 cm = 2000 g_v/cm). Broken line: precipitable water in mm (Marques et al., 1979)

On the other hand, there are parts of the Amazon region where different results can be observed between areas covered with pastures and areas covered with forests. An example would be Marajó island, where forested land shows a better distribution of precipitation throughout the year, with a monthly minimum close to 80 mm. In pasture areas, the precipitation is zero during dry periods. The total rainfall of the two areas is practically the same. It has been observed that the daily temperature variations are larger on pasture land, indicating a smaller availability of atmospheric water. Observation of the clouds has shown that the locally formed cumulus are smaller, and in higher altitudes of pastures area, rather than in areas covered with forest.

Those conclusions published by Salati (1983) have been confirmed by several articles in Amazonian Deforestation and Climate, edited by Gash et al., in 1996. These studies have indicated an air temperature increase close to the ground (Souza et al., 1996; Hodnett et al., 1996).

The model by Lean et al. (1996), concludes that large-scale deforestation, that is, a total forest clearing, leads to climatic modifications towards the reduction of precipitation in the Amazon area under consideration. The model forecast for total deforestation indicates a reduction of 7 per cent on precipitation, a reduction of 19 per cent on evapotranspiration and an increase of 2.3°C on ground temperature.

Preservation of the biodiversity

Considering that the Amazon region has one of the largest diversity indices of the planet, the Brazilian government has made, during the last few decades, a great effort towards the implementation of conservation units. Presently, the Brazilian Amazon contains 112 conservation units, covering an area of 43,496,837 hectares, corresponding to 8.7 per cent of its territory.

Table 5 indicates the number and the corresponding areas of the conservation units, according to Ryland (1995), for the different types of conservation units established by the Brazilian law. In table 6 are listed the national parks, the biological reserves and the ecological reserves of the Brazilian Amazon. The location of the stations listed on these two tables is shown in figures 10 and 11.

Water resources development

As previously explained, the Amazon region is rich in water and other natural resources. Of the 6.1 million km² of the Amazon basin, 3.85 million km² are located in the territory of Brazil. This area represents 45 per cent of the Brazilian territory, estimated at 8.5 million km². It is then quite reasonable to assume that these natural resources will be developed by the Brazilian authorities in the near future. Next to water supply for domestic purposes, the most important water uses in this basin are hydropower and navigation. Flood control, from a practical standpoint, can only be approached from a non-structural viewpoint (flood warning, flood insurance etc.). Water quality in reservoirs created by hydropower development is an issue of great importance for appropriate environmental management. In this section we examine the utilization of Amazonian water resources for hydropower and navigation and the associated water quality issues in rivers and reservoirs. For reasons mentioned above the discussion will concentrate on the Brazilian Amazonia.

Table 5: Conservation units

Category of conservation unit		Number of units	Area (ha)
Direct use (sustainable management)
Federal
	National forest	24	12,527,986
	Federal reserve for extraction	08	2,199,311
	Federal area for environmental protection	02	82,600
	Area of relevant geological interest	02	18,288
State
	State forest	11	1,401,638
	State reserve for extraction	03	1,438,978
	State area for environmental protection	10	6,922,257
Subtotal		60	24,591,058
Indirect use (integral protection)
Federal
	National park	10	8,301,113
	Biological reserve	08	2,902,800
	Ecological station	11	2,007,666
	Ecological reserve	03	457,574
State
	Park1	10	3,880,953
	Biological reserve2	03	105,878
	Ecological station	03	1,244,678
	Ecological reserve	01	3,000
Subtotal		49	18,903,662
Complementary category (RPPN)		03	2,117
Subtotal		03	2,117
Total		112	43,496,837

1 The state park of Serra do Araçá, Am, is mainly covered by the National Forest of the Amazon, Am.

² The state biological reserve of Morro de Seis Lagos, Am, is contained by the limits of the National Park of Pico da Neblina, Am.

Note: The total area of the conservation units which form the Brazilian Amazon, taking into account the overlap of the above referred areas, is of 41,641,237 ha.

Hydropower

Hydropower in Brazil is managed and controlled by Eletrobrás, a government agency, responsible for the planning and operation of electrical generating, transmission, and distribution systems. According to the Brazilian Constitution, it is a prerogative of the Federal Government to explore, directly or by concession, authorization or permission for exploitating the hydropower potential of river courses in co-operation with the states where the those potential sites are located. Eletrobrás operates all over Brazilian territory through the different power-generating companies under its control. In figure 12 the different concessionaires in various parts of the country are shown. The whole Amazonian basin is operated by Eletronorte.

Table 6: National parks, biological reserves, and ecological reserves of the Brazilian Amazon

State		Units	Date of decree	Area (ha)
National parks (10)
	Tocantins	Araguaia	1959	562,312
	Pará	Amazonia	1974	994,000
	Rondônia	Pacaás Novos	1979	764,801
	Amazonas	Pico da Neblina	1979	2,200,000
	Amapá	Cabo Orange	1980	619,000
	Amazonas	Jaú	1980	2,272,000
	Mato Grosso	Pantanal Matogrossense	1981	135,000
	Acre	Serra do Divisor	1989	605,000
	Roraima	Monte Roraima	1989	116,000
	Mato Grosso	Chapada dos Guimarães	1989	33,000
Subtotal				8,301,113
Biological reserves (8)
	Pará	Rio Trombetas	1979	385,000
	Rondônia	Jarú	1979	268,150
	Amapá	Lago Piratuba	1980	357,000
	Amazonas	Abusari	1982	288,000
	Rondônia	Guaporé	1982	600,000
	Maranhão	Gurupi	1988	341,650
	Pará	Tapirapé	1989	103,000
	Amazonas	Uatumã	1990	560,000
Subtotal				2,902,800
Ecological reserves (3)
	Amazonas	Sauim-Castanheiras	1982	109
	Amazonas	Jutai-Solimões	1983	284,285
	Amazonas	Juami-Japurá	1983	173,180
Subtotal				457,574
Total				13,669,153

Fig. 10: National parks and biological reserves of the Brazilian Amazon

Although Eletrobrás operates in a decentralized way, its long and medium-range planning and operation is performed through a commission under the leadership of Eletrobrás with the participation of all the subsidiaries. The most recent plan of the electrical sector in Brazil is the so-called plan 2015 with a planning horizon for the year 2015. This plan is based on four different demand scenarios in which the GNP of the country would vary at rates ranging from 2 to 6 per cent per year from 1992 till 2015. As a result of these scenarios the forecast electrical energy consumption in Brazil is depicted in table 7. Electrical energy represents nearly 40 per cent of the total energy consumption in the country.

The electricity generating network in Brazil is predominantly hydro. The 228 TWh in 1992 had a contribution from hydroelectricity of 96 per cent. Thermal generation is utilized for isolated systems and in a complementary way to improve the reliability of the hydroelectric power system. There are three segments in the Brazilian hydroelectric system: the integrated system south/south-east/centre-west, the integrated system north/north-east and the isolated systems of the northern region. The main characteristics of these generating and transmission systems are: reservoirs with multi-year regulation, large distances between the generating plants and the demand centres, watersheds with hydrologic diversity, a high degree of electrical integration among distinct subsystems of different watersheds and a large potential of hydropower development, notably in the Amazon basin.

Fig. 11: Ecological stations and national ecological reserves of the Brazilian Amazon

Electric sources for Brazil for the planning horizon of year 2015 are depicted in table 8. It can be observed that almost the only alternative for the country for the next 20 years is hydropower. Hence, Eletrobrás will proceed to develop the potential sites for several reasons including the large potential available at lower cost when compared with other feasible options (only one quarter of this potential is developed or under construction); a renewable resource whose costs of operation do not depend on oscillations of fuel costs; available expertise in the country with respect to planning, designing and construction of hydropower plants; hydropower reservoirs can and should be used for multiple uses of water (irrigation, navigation, water supply, etc.) improving the national economy in other sectors and finally the availability of expertise in the country for transmission of electricity at large distances which would allow the development of the potential available in the Amazon.

Fig. 12: Geographic distribution of electrical energy concessionaires in Brazil

A more detailed analysis of the hydropower potential of Brazil (table 9) shows that more than 50 per cent of that potential is located in the Amazon basin, in particular in the state of Pará. The development of the Tocantins river will have the highest priority, followed by the Xingu river basin. The priority of the upper Xingu is to supply the south-east/south/centre-west regions while the lower Xingu should supply the north east region. The capacity of electrical interconnection between the Amazon basin and the north and north-east region is higher than 5,000 MW and the south-east/centre-west varies between 3,000 to 6,000 MW depending on the energy demand scenarios. Including the Madeira and Tapajós river basins there is an additional 11,000 MW. Four hydropower plants (figure 13) would provide this energy: Belo Monte (11,000 MW) and Altamira (5,720) in the Xingu river basin; TA-1 (9,528 MW) in the Tapajós river basin and MR-1 (6,854 MW) in the Madeira river basin.

Table 7: Forecast of GNP and energy consumption increase in Brazil

		1992	2000	2005	2010	2015
Scenario 1
	GNP (109 US$)	321.2	382.5	488.2	593.9	722.4
	(%)	-	2.2	5.0	4.0	4.0
	Energy (TWh)	224.3	293.8	384.0	467.2	563.0
	(%)	-	3.4	5,5	4.0	3.8
Scenario 2
	GNP (109 US$)	321.2	450.9	575.5	700.2	851.6
	(%)	-	4.3	5.0	4.0	4.0
	Energy (TWh)	224.3	329.5	430.6	523.9	631.3
	(%)	-	4.9	5.5	4.0	3.8
Scenario 3
	GNP (109 US$)	321.2	516.0	690.6	881.3	1,124.5
	(%)	-	6.1	6.0	5.0	5.0
	Energy (TWh)	224.3	360.7	473.2	589.7	731.4
	(%)	-	6.1	5.6	4.5	4.4
Scenario 4
	GNP (109 US$)	321.2	540.8	723.7	968.5	1,295.7
	(%)	-	6.7	6.0	6.0	6.0
	Energy (TWh)	224.3	377.6	495.4	642.6	826.4
	(%)	-	6.7	5.6	5.6	5.2

Eletrobrás (1994).

Table 8: Energy resources for hydroelectric generation in Brazil

Source	Potential		Cost(US$/MWh)
	Gw year	GW
Hydro	123.5	247.0	33% < 40
			29% between 40 and 70
			28% > 70
Coal	12.0	18.0	50 to 70
Nuclear	15.0	25.0	60 to 70
Total	150.5	290.0

Eletrobrás (1996).

Table 9: Brazilian hydroelectric potential as firm energy (MW-year)

Basin	Operating and construction	Survey/feasibility studies/design	Estimated	Total
Amazon	3,707.0	26,173.5	37,173.5	68,623.2
Atlantic N-NE	140.0	94.6	1,329.0	1,563.6
São Francisco	5,707.0	2,673.0	1,270.5	9,650.5
Atlantic E	909.7	5,579.9	1,327.0	7,816.6
Paraná	18,715.2	6,045.8	5,426.1	30,187.1
Uruguay	141.8	6,268.0	1,355.4	7,765.1
Atlantic SE	743.8	765.1	1,931.0	3,439.9
Total	30,064.4	47,619.7	51,361.9	129,046.0

Eletrobrás (1996).

Fig. 13: Transmission of electrical energy from the Amazon basin to different regions in Brazil

The installed hydropower capacity in the Amazon basin in 1996 was 4,734 MW (Tucuruí, 4,240; Curuá-Una, 30; Coaracy Nunes, 40; Balbina, 250 and Samuel, 174). Under the Eletrobrás 2015 plan a considerable amount of hydropower is to be installed in a highly environmentally sensitive region. Consequently, a very detailed multi-objective analysis is essential in siting the associated dams and reservoirs. All related variables, economic, social, political, and environmental are taken into account at the very first stage of the implementation of the system.

The utilization of simple indexes should be avoided (Goodland, 1996) such as the ratio of inundated area per MW installed or the number of people involuntarily resettled per MW installed, since they do not encompass multiple uses of resources and other economic aspects. Concepts such as regional insertion of the project in the local community and multiple uses of water resources should play a substantial role in defining the best site for the power plants and reservoirs.

In order to illustrate the importance of the hydropower potential for the Amazon the horizons of extinction of competitive hydro-power in Brazil for different development scenarios are presented in figure 14.

It can be observed that, without the Amazon potential, the extinction of the hydropower potential of the country takes place in the period 2003-2012, while if one considers the Amazon region this extinction takes place in the period 2012-2021 depending on the scenario adopted. The hypothesis of not using Amazonian hydropower implies the implementation of a significant thermoelectric programme for the country starting around 2005-2010 depending on the demand scenario. This programme would very likely rely on coal and nuclear plants. This would certainly result in higher energy costs to the final consumers and severe environmental problems related to air pollution at local and global scale and disposal of nuclear wastes. It thus becomes apparent that the adequate planning of the Amazonian hydropower plants, including economic, social, and environmental variables, is the only feasible alternative for the long-range supply of electrical energy in Brazil.

Fig. 14: Extinction horizons of competitive and environmentally feasible hydro-power in Brazil

Navigation

Brazil contains the largest river network in the world. Approximately 40,000 km of rivers are natural waterways for navigation. Unfortunately, due to its topography, most of the developed areas of the country are located near the coast, a region that presents great difficulties for navigation. Only 10 per cent of the land where development has taken place is located near those navigable watercourses (Cabral, 1996). Today, the migration of farmers and miners to the hinterland is allowing the use of part of this huge river network for exporting grains, minerals, oil, and construction materials and importing equipment with a load tonnage of more than 12 million tons a year. In the Amazon region large trucks of up to 45 tons of load use the roll-on roll-off system to go from Porto Velho to Manaus through the Madeira river or from Manaus to Belém through the Amazon river. Approximately 50 per cent of the 40,000 km of navigable waterways in Brazil are located in the Amazon region.

For decades fluvial navigation in Brazil has waited for a national plan that would integrate this transportation system with the general transportation system of the country, one which would compare favourably with alternative transportation systems. In 1989 Brazil's Ministry of Transportation elaborated the PNVNI - "Plano Nacional de Vias Navegáveis Interiores." This plan, with a horizon of 2002, has established load fluxes, a fluvial network and fleet, integrated with the hydropower and irrigation sectors and with planned legislation for interior navigation. Although the plan has no details of waterways interconnection, a preliminary analysis indicates that it would be possible to go from Belém to the Plata estuary through a transcontinental waterway of 8,000 km (figure 15). Unlike the Eletrobrás 2015 plan the navigation plan has not taken off and is being subjected to major revision by the government.

Fig. 15: Interconnection of waterways in Brazil

A more detailed view of the waterway network of the Amazon basin including harbours and cities is given in figure 16. The Amazonas-Solimões is a river that allows all-year-long navigation of oceanic ships from its mouth in the Atlantic up to Iquitos in Peru. The Madeira river is integrated in the highway system in Porto Velho and constitutes an important axis in the export of agriculture products from the centre west farms to Manaus. The other important waterways are the Negro, in whose riverbanks Manaus is located, the Branco, a tributary of the Negro, the Purus, and the Juruá. A major system in the Amazon dominion is the Tocantins-Araguaia (figure 17). This system crosses centre west Brazil, the new agriculture frontier of the country. It extends from its mouth in the Pará river up to the central highlands of Brasília nearly 3,000 km away. This waterway includes 715 km in the Tocantins, 1,701 km in the Araguaia and 425 km in the Mortes river and can be readily integrated with the harbour complex of Belém and the railway system of Carajás and the RFFSA (federal railway system of Brazil). The implementation of this waterway system depends on the construction of the locks in the Tucuruí hydropower plant to allow the transposition of 72 m of depth difference in the Tocantins river. In the Araguaia river the obstacle is the rapids of Santa Isabel which will be inundated by the lake to be created by the hydropower plant planned for this location. At Santa Isabel dam there will be locks to transpose 60 m of difference in water levels.

Fig. 16: The waterway system of the Amazon river basin

Fig. 17: The waterway system of the Tocantins and Araguaia rivers

The basic Amazonian waterway system encompasses in particular the Içá, Solimões, Amazonas, Juruá, Acre, Purus, Madeira, Tapajós, Xingu, Tocantins, Araguaia, Japurá, and Negro rivers. These rivers have contact points with the highway system in the Amazonia, allowing access to regions of low population density and are axes of inter-regional integration (Cabral, 1996).

This basic network has been under-explored for several reasons, including deficiencies in signalling and buoying systems in the several tributaries of the Amazon and Solimões, lack of appropriate harbour installations to allow the conjugation of the waterway and the highway and the existence of rapids that make it difficult to navigate during low waters. Consequently, the solution to this problem includes the construction of bypasses and reservoirs for regulation in the Negro, Uaupés, Tiquié, Içana, and Araguaia-Tocantins; construction of small harbours at the intersection of highway BR-230 and the tributaries of the right bank of the Amazon and the improvement of the existing harbour system in the main river (Tefé, Manaus, etc.).

Legal and institutional issues

Water resources and environmental issues in the Brazilian Constitution

The current Federal Constitution of Brazil, issued on 5 October 1988, emphasizes the environmental theme with a special chapter dedicated to the subject. Chapter VI, section 225 presents the National Environmental Policy which was based in the Federal Law 6938 of 31 August 1981. According to this section, all citizens have the right to an ecologically equitable environment. This is a major national asset and is essential for a healthy quality of life. The government, with the general public, must defend and preserve it for present and future generations. According to the first paragraph, to ensure the effectiveness of this right, the federal government has some important obligations with significance to water resources, such as:

- preserve and recover essential ecological processes and provide for the ecological management of species and ecosystems

- define, in all federate units, physical space to be specially protected

- impose environmental impact studies for licensing of civil works or any potentially harmful activity

- control the production, commercialization and usage of techniques, methods, and substances that imply threat for quality of life, life itself and for the environment.

Other constitutional statements related to water resources in section 225 are:

- the exploitation of mineral resources implies the obligation to restore the degraded environment, in compliance with the techniques suggested by the related public agency

- conduct and activities harmful to the environment will subject the infractor to criminal or administrative sanctions, independently of the obligation to mitigate the damage generated

- the Amazon forest, the Atlantic forest, the Pantanal, and the coastal zones are national assets which will be used under conditions that warrant the preservation of the environment including the use of natural resources.

Other sections of the Federal Constitution are related to the environment. Since our interest is specifically in water resources planning and management, the next items will discuss the constitutional precepts related to water.

Water as a public good in Brazil

Brazilian Civil Law (section 65), states that all goods in the territory belonging to the Union, states or municipalities are public, all other goods are private. Public goods are classified as (section 66):

(i) people's common use goods such as rivers, lakes, seas, roads, and streets;

(ii) special use goods, such as buildings or lots serving the federal, state, or municipal government;

(iii) national goods, that is, those goods belonging to the Union, states, or municipalities.

An important change introduced in the Federal Constitution of 1988 was the division of waters into federal and state property. Federal waters are those flowing in rivers that flow through two or more states or that divide two states. State waters are those flowing in rivers that flow solely in the state territory. In this way, municipal waters envisioned in the Water Act of 1934 no longer exist. According to this same statute (section 225) the environment will be considered a public good. Federal Law 6938 of 31 August 1981, in accordance with these precepts, considers the environment as in public ownership, defining it as: "the set of physical, chemical, and biological conditions, laws, influences and interactions that allow, hold and reign all forms of life." Among environmental resources this law includes the interior waters, surface and groundwater, the estuaries and the territorial seas (section 3).

According to the Civil Code (section 67) things in public ownership cannot be transferred to the private sector. Pompeu (1992), quoting other counsellors, states that public goods of common use are not susceptible to the right of ownership, although the tradition allows the usage of the term to designate the holder of the judiciary relationship to whom is entrusted the care and management. In this respect the public agencies are the holders and the people and the state the beneficiaries of public goods. Section 68 of the Civil Code states that the common use of public goods can be free or charged according to specific legislation at the federal or state level. Similarly, the Water Act (section 36) states that the common use of waters can be charged in accordance with laws and rules of the administrative region where they belong. Public goods can be used by the private sector by specific authorization from the holders. In this situation the user shall pay the public agency for the right of use.

Water use and water permits

According to the Federal Constitution (section 24-VI) the Union, the states, and the federal district are jointly responsible for legislation regarding forests, fisheries, nature conservation, protection of the soil and natural resources, protection of the environment and pollution control. However, the Union has the charge of legislating privately with respect to water and energy as well as to fluvial, lake, and coastal navigation. Section 22 allows the states to legislate as well (complementary) through specific legislation regulating these matters. The current constitution, however, does not allow the states to enact additional (supplementary) legislation to deal with the special situations in such a large territory as Brazil. Section 21-XII states that the federation shall explore, directly or through authorization, concession, or permission, the hydroelectric potential of the water courses. This exploitation, however, must be performed in combination with the states where the development is planned. Although the form of joint action depends on specific law, the constitutional principle allows the possibility for states to tailor any permits to their own requirements.

It is a federal duty to implement the National Water Resources Management System. Section 21-XIX demands the creation of this system by the federal government, which is also responsible for defining the criteria for issuing water permits in the country.

The Water Act is a pioneering legal instrument enacted in 1934. Many of its precepts are still valid even after the promulgation of two constitutions in the meantime. However, many precepts have not been put into practice due to the lack of specific legislation to regulate them. According to section 36, any citizen has the right to use public waters and the use of highest priority is domestic supply. In section 43 it is stated that public waters cannot be used for agriculture, industry, or hygiene without an administrative permit except in cases of insignificant usage. These permits are given for a fixed period of time, never longer than 30 years.

The national water-resources policy and management system

Complying with the statement of section 21, chapter 19 of the Federal Constitution, the Executive Office sent to the National Congress the draft of law 2249 in 1991. This draft defines the National Water Resources Policy and creates the National Water Resources Management System. In January of 1997 the president of the republic signed Law 9433 on 8 January 1997 which regulates water use in the territory of Brazil. According to this law the National Water Resources Policy (NWRP) seeks to ensure the integrated and harmonious use of water resources towards the promotion of development and social well being in Brazilian society. Section 4 presents different instruments of the NWRP such as:

- the concession of the right of use complying with criteria and priorities established in the Water Act and subsequent legislation

- water charges for water resources utilization cost sharing in multiple use water resources works

- the institution of areas for the protection of watersheds for domestic water supply.

The National Water Resources Management System proposed will have a national collegiate, basin commissions, and an executive secretary. The directives of the system as stated in section 6 impose:

- consideration of physical, hydrological, social, economic, cultural, and political peculiarities common to large countries like Brazil

- integration of federal, state, and municipal initiatives in the planning of water use adopting the watershed as the base for regional actions

- promotion of decentralization of some federal actions through the delegation to states and the federal district as long as there is explicit interest between the parties

- encouragement of technical, institutional, and financial cooperation among water users to achieve a larger participation in construction, operation, and maintenance of hydraulic works of common interest

- stimulation of public participation in the decision-making process.

Although the above directives show a typical decentralization proposal, in other parts of the document there are contradictory rules restraining the participation of state governments as well as water users in the decision-making process. In this respect section 12 attributes to the National Collegiate, formed with representatives of the federal government, the:

- approval of the water utilization plans of federal rivers in the whole country

- approval of the classification of water courses according to priority uses

- creation of watershed commissions establishing norms and procedures for their implementation.

The water-resources law is a major advance that the water resources sector in Brazil is experiencing today. The idea of water administration at the watershed level and the charging for water use and discharge are important concepts that will certainly bring about the improvement of water management in Brazil in general and in the Amazon basin in particular.

Initiatives of the Federal Government of Brazil

In Brazil the responsibility for development and conservation of the Amazon basin is given to the Ministry of Water Resources, Environment and Legal Amazon. This new institutional arrangement should minimize past mistakes made in the process of development of the Amazon region. In addition to the fact that only about 10 per cent of the forest has been used so far the rate of deforestation decreased substantially after the elimination (in 1991) of the subsidies provided by the government for the development of the area. In addition, the Brazilian government has already established several protected areas in the region, including national parks, biological reserves, ecological stations, national forests, extractive reserves, and Indian reserves. In November 1991, the total protected area in the Brazilian Amazon was over 116 million hectares (the Yanomami and Kaiapó reserves were established after that date), which represents about 25 per cent of the region.

The Brazilian Government is currently undertaking a major study concerning the sustainable development of the Brazilian Amazon, which will involve ecological and economic zoning of the area to avoid the repetition of the mistakes of the past. Ecological and economic zoning is the most important policy instrument for territorial management through the regulation of the dynamics of land use, according to the concept of sustainability. This policy instrument aims at integrating the available scientific and technological knowledge with the social aspirations of the people of the region. The zoning is, therefore, an instrument for negotiation and adjustment among the various development proposals for the region. Three basic types of zones are being considered in the region. They are dedicated to the following uses:

- productive zones: where the use of natural resources can ensure, with the use of improved technologies, better quality of life for the population;

- critical zones: which in view of their environmental conditions require special care for their management;

- special zones of two types: those which correspond to Indian areas, extractive reserves, and conservation units; and those which correspond to sites of relevant historical or cultural interest for ecotourism, or strategic areas (such as national boundaries).

After four years of work, the first step of the Ecological and Economical Zoning is concluding with the Environmental Diagnostic for the Region and the establishment of a computerized data bank.

The Ministry of Environment, Water Resources and the Amazon is responsible for making sure that development activities in the Brazilian Amazon Region are undertaken in line with the concept of sustainability. The National Council for the Amazon, presided over by the President of the Republic, approved in July 1995 the Integrated National Policy for the Amazon, which is the result of an extensive evaluation of past development efforts, their successes, failures, and limitations, and is an answer to current and future challenges, in our quest to achieve sustainable development. This policy takes due consideration of the paramount importance of the water resources for the Amazon region, not only because of the need for integrated management of its multiple uses, but also because water vapour generated in the region is a crucial element in the maintenance of the climatic conditions, at least at local and regional levels.

International Cooperation and TCA

At the international level the region has today an important mechanism for water resources management: the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation (TCA). This treaty signed on 3 July 1978 in Brasília by the Governments of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela aims at the improvement of the quality of life of the Amazonian people. TCA states that while it is important to have economic development of the area it is important to preserve the natural environment. In this respect the treaty clearly proposes: "... conscious that either the socio-economic development or the environmental preservation are inherent responsibilities of each state sovereignty and that the cooperation among the contracting parties will facilitate the compliance of these responsibilities, continuing and enlarging the joint efforts that they have been making in terms of ecological conservation of the Amazon... resolve to subscribe to the present treaty."

The cooperation foreseen in the treaty encompasses the rational use of natural resources including water, the improvement of housing and navigation, rational utilization of the flora and fauna, coordination of the health services, scientific and technological research, implementation and operation of research institutions and centres of experimental production, organization of meetings and seminars, exchange of documentation and information, increase in the rational use of human resources, promotion of local commerce, increase in tourism at national and international level. As general principles the execution of the treaty should observe the following: unanimity in order to take any action, possibilities for the contracting parties to establish bilateral and multilateral agreements as long as they are not contrary to the aims of the treaty, recognition of the need to give special attention to the initiatives of less-developed countries that imply joint action of the parties, possibility of international organizations' participation in local projects in the region, unlimited duration of the treaty and sovereign equality of the parties.

Several meetings have taken place since the signing of TCA. They involved political as well as technical issues. Several committees have been created to implement the treaty including special committees on the following: Amazonian environment (CEMAA), transportation, communication and infrastructure of Amazônia (CETICAM), Indian affairs (CEAIA), Amazonian Tourism (CETURA), science and technology (CECTA), and health in the Amazon (CESAM). The treaty is being implemented in a gradual way taking into account the present economic and financial situation experienced by most countries of the world.

The following articles of TCA are concerned with water resource:

- Article V

Considering the important and multiple functions performed by the rivers in the Amazonian region, in connection with the economic and social development of the region, the contracting parties shall make every effort to ensure a rational use of water resources.

- Article XV

The contracting parties shall endeavor to maintain a permanent exchange of information and cooperation among themselves and with Latin American cooperation organizations, with respect to the action areas covered by this treaty.

Since the beginning of the 1990s the TCA member countries have made a series of commitments with respect to water management of the Amazon basin including: establishment of a hydrometeorological database of the Amazon region, promotion of the exchange of researchers in hydrology and meteorology for the purpose of research enhancement, undertaking of a surface and aerological water balance, creation of a regional centre on tropical hydrology, conducting basic research on agro-meteorology, fostering the use of remote sensing, strengthening technical cooperation at all levels in the fields of hydrology and climatology, holding biannual meetings in the field of hydrology and climatology and the establishment of a basic hydro-meteorological network for the Amazonian region.

When thinking about the conservation and sustainable development of the Amazon region, particularly its water resources, it is important to understand the joint responsibilities of the countries involved. In March 1989, the countries of the region met in Quito, Ecuador, and issued the Declaration of San Francisco de Quito, which among other things, established a special commission for the Amazonian environment and a special commission for Indian affairs. Furthermore, the presidents of the states party to the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation, meeting in Manaus, Brazil, on 6 May 1989, adopted the Amazon Declaration, which stated:

We emphasize the need that the concerns expressed in the highly developed countries in relation to the conservation of the Amazon environment, be translated into measures of cooperation in the financial and technological fields. We call for the establishment of new resource flows and concessional terms to projects oriented to environmental protection in our countries, including pure and applied scientific research, and object to attempts to impose conditions in the allocation of international resources for development. We expect the establishment of conditions to allow free access to scientific knowledge, clean technologies and technologies to be used in environmental protection and reject attempts made to use legitimate ecological concerns to realize commercial profits.

Impacts of modern colonization and sustainable development

Sustainable development, while being a broad concept, stating that natural resources of today are to be preserved and made available to future generations, should be analysed through several objective and quantitative criteria. In this way it has been decided to utilize the criteria of economic, ecological, and social sustainabilities for the appraisal of projects supported by national and international agencies.

- Economic sustainability is achieved when the investment output reaches levels which are compatible with the specifications of the supporting agencies (they should at least cover related interests and the amortization of capital costs).

- Ecological sustainability is attained when system productivity is maintained over time and biodiversity is preserved.

- Social sustainability is reached when the output from the investment improves quality of life and leads to a better income distribution.

The projects implemented in the Amazon region during the last few decades have not necessarily attained the criteria for sustainable development, particularly the ones associated with the expansion of agricultural and cattle-raising activities, which have been shown to be the main factors contributing to the increase of deforestation in the region. These projects have been developed in conjunction with the construction of large highways, such as the Belém-Brasília, the Transamazônica and the BR 364, connecting Cuiabá to Porto Velho. Currently presently secondary roads have also been constructed to Rio Branco-Cuiabá, leading to a multiple interaction among governmental institutions and private enterprise, interested in timber exploitation and, recently, in agricultural and cattle-raising activities.

Unfortunately, the implementation of a long-term sustainable agriculture in the Amazon region has been no more than a challenge to administrators and scientists. The equilibrium attained by the original forest is based on a strong process of nutrient recycling, where the organic matter generated (leaves and small branches) is decomposed in the soil, by a large number of microorganisms, particularly the microarthropodes. From this interaction results the breakdown of organic matter, the release of nutrients and the maintenance of the soil chemical and physiochemical properties. Deforestation interferes with this dynamic process, particularly through the destruction of thousands of living animal and vegetable species, which would, otherwise, interact within the ecological system. On the other hand, conventional agricultural activities are associated with a continuous process of planting and harvesting of a reduced number of vegetal species. The heavy rain associated with cultivation practices, devoid of soil conservation techniques, leads to soil erosion by surface run-off, or by lixiviation.

Other types of project implemented in the Amazon are related to mineral exploitation, construction of hydroelectric plants, mining of gold ore and precious stones, as well as timber exploitation, not necessarily associated with farming activities. All these activities have caused, at different levels, heavy environmental drawbacks in the region. The observed impacts are sometimes due to direct action, such as mining, particularly of gold ore, which has brought about deforestation, the destruction of river banks, the contamination of water courses by mercury, and the promotion of negative contacts with the local Indian tribes. Indirect impacts have also occurred, such as the construction of large artificial lakes for power generation, leading to uncontrolled development and to several other negative effects such as the ones caused by filling the reservoirs without previously clearing the vegetation.

It is actually very difficult to find, within the Amazon region, a neat example of a project resistant to critical analysis of the three criteria to be attained, in order that the development associated with them is considered as sustainable. Notwithstanding, this situation does not imply that such a level of development is not possible. Recent analysis (Salati, 1997), aiming at the identification of the limiting factors needed to achieve sustainable development, led to the following classification:

- natural factors
- technological factors
- educational factors
- economic factors
- institutional factors.

When developmental projects are under analysis, one or more of these factors are usually identified as limiting factors. Apparently, the main problem lies on the insistence on or initiative in implementing intensive colonization in a region where the factors or forces maintaining the dynamic equilibrium are not fully understood. Looking at the Amazon forest from above, particularly over the high density forest, it is not possible to characterize lack of nutrients, and preliminary surveys have indicated a high rate of photosynthetic primary production. This large rate of primary productivity leads to the erroneous conclusion that monocultures would have the same long-term productivity efficiency. Many decades of research have been made necessary and large areas have been deforested before having these false premises dismantled. Nowadays, support agencies do not allow the substitution of forests by pastureland, and have ruled that more than 50 per cent of the original forests should be preserved on developmental sites in the Amazon region.

While lessons have been learned over time and the legislation has established conditions for a sustainable development, the lack of institutions able to control and to enforce the law is still the most important limiting factor for ecological balance in the Amazon region.

Conclusions and recommendations

This paper has presented an overview of the Amazon basin in terms of its ecological system, the alternatives for its sustainable development and the legal and institutional framework for the development of the region from a Brazilian perspective and in the realm of the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation. The Amazonian dominion which extents beyond the Amazon river basin has much diversity in terms of ecosystems and flow regimes. The fragility of the ecosystems should be taken into account when considering alternatives for the development of the region.

The most immediate use of the water in the basin is for hydro-power and navigation. The energy matrix of Brazil shows very little resource other than hydropower. The available alternatives (coal, oil, nuclear) are more expensive and impose heavy environmental pollution. Consequently, the utilization of the Amazon basin to supply electrical energy markets in south and north east Brazil is being considered, beginning in the year 2000. Navigation is a natural transportation system in the Amazon. Today, large vessels sail from the ocean to more than 2,000 km inland. The integration of navigation with other systems (railway and highway) will be considered in the Brazilian navigation plan for the year 2000.

References

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2. The Amazon policy of Colombia

Fabio Torrijos Quintero

Geographical location and biophysical features

The Amazon region, which covers 336,583 km², accounts for one-third of the national territory. It comprises the departments of Amazonas, Caquetá, Guainía, Guaviare, and Putumayo. Geographically, it extends from the Guaviare and Guayabero rivers in the north to the trapezoid stretching between the Amazon and Putumayo rivers in the south, and from the Brazilian border in the east to the watershed of the eastern cordillera in the west (map 1).

The Colombian Amazon region is marked by biophysical, cultural, and socioeconomic diversity. The many different climates, geological formations, and altitudes make for highly divergent landscapes, with a great variety of soils, plants, and biodiversity. Rainfall is abundant, ranging from 2,500 to 4,000 mm a year, and the average temperature is 25°C.

The region's natural resources have been deteriorating under the impact of settlement, which has led to the deforestation of 7,500 ha of tropical rainforest, affecting species of fauna and flora and thus entailing a loss of biodiversity; pollution of water sources by waste-water, organic residues, and the chemicals used for illegal crops; and soil degradation from inappropriate farming practices. The illegal occupation of parks, natural reserves, and the Amazonian forest reserve has triggered various types of conflict, which call for careful examination to identify solutions consistent with local dynamics and with the objectives of the protected area system. Wildlife has also suffered from the consumption needs of the settlements and the illegal trade, to the point that various species are in danger of extinction.

Map 1: Location of frontier projects

Socio-economic features of the region

The indigenous population numbers around 60,000, and the immigrant population from several waves of colonization is 850,000. Population growth in the region has soared in the past few years, by 230,000, from 1985 to 1993. This is double the rate for the country as a whole, the highest of any region, and 45 per cent of it stems from migration. Of this population, 52.5 per cent lives in poverty and 24.3 per cent in extreme poverty.

The indigenous population is composed of 59 different ethnic groups, living primarily in rural parts of the Vaupés, Amazonas, and Guainía departments. The majority of them (70 per cent) are settled in 25 protected areas totalling about 18 million ha; the rest live in unprotected zones. The 1991 Constitution established that indigenous lands are territorial entities, and as such have the right to be governed by their own authorities, who are entitled to exercise the relevant powers, manage resources, levy any taxes needed to perform their functions, and share in the national revenue. The indigenous territories are governed by councils formed and regulated according to community practices and customs. Among other things, they enforce the regulations on community land-use and settlement within their territories and see to the preservation of their natural resources.

Illiteracy is 18.4 per cent, compared to 12.7 per cent for the nation as a whole. Primary and secondary school attendance is below the national average. Access to higher education has improved in the region, as a result of specially designed policies and the strengthening of the University of Amazonia.

The region's economy is based on highly diverse activities, as heterogeneous as its population. The economic activity of the indigenous communities is centered around small farms and the sustained use of the forests, and is basically oriented towards creating family-size units.

For indigenous communities that are highly integrated into the market community, the traditional system of production has gradually been replaced by farming geared essentially to the local consumer market. The economic activities of the non-indigenous population are based on both extraction and production. The main extractive activities at the present time are timber, oil, and gold, and to a lesser extent ornamental and food fish, in addition to wildlife.

Oil operations in the region are located in Putumayo department, and royalties constitute an important source of local revenue. However, these operations have a negative environmental impact and promote migration that affects the regional economy.

Agriculture as practised by the non-indigenous people has introduced foreign methods and products unsuited to the region's environmental conditions. No appropriate technology has been developed for livestock raising, so that there are no regional economic alternatives that are environmentally viable. Fishing, which takes place primarily in the departments of Amazonas, Caquetá, and Putumayo, is characterized by uncontrolled exploitation, and lack of scientific knowledge of the resources has led to the depletion of certain species.

Gold production in the region, though just beginning, is causing serious environmental disturbances, that are causing international and inter-ethnic conflicts. An economic model based on the cultivation and processing of coca has been developed, and dominates the region's economy. The national government's decision to eradicate illegal crops and control inputs has generated a conflict of major proportions in the social and political life of the region.

The transportation infrastructure is quite weak, which affects communication both within the region and with the outside. Given this situation, coordination among the various means of transportation is inadequate, thus making it impossible to build a multimodal system. Roads are few and poor in quality, and they tend to damage the environment because the area they traverse is so fragile. Here there is a conflict between the need to create the infrastructure required to link markets and the resulting environmental impact. This conflict is intensified by the contradictory approaches of different government institutions.

River transport, considered suitable because of its low costs and minimum environmental impact, is hampered by sedimentation of the principal rivers which reduces navigability. Air transport, the ideal means of communication, suffers from an insufficient and inadequate airport infrastructure, and its high cost is also an obstacle to its use.

National environmental policy

The national environmental policy is based on sustainable human development and has five basic objectives: (1) to promote a new development culture; (2) to improve the quality of life; (3) to promote clean production; (4) to work towards sustainable environmental management; and (5) to guide the behaviour of local communities.

The increasing environmental degradation in Colombia requires effective, dynamic government intervention, with the committed support of society and production sectors, to ensure a healthy environment for everyone and incorporate the environmental costs into development considerations. Environmental policy is put into practice through education strategies, joint efforts to increase social capital, gradualism, decentralized management of national policies, public participation, and scientific and technological support.

To move towards sustainable human development, a plan to solve the major environmental problems, to prevent the deterioration of the most strategically valuable ecosystems, and to build the foundations for a new development culture so as to bring about long-term change, is being carried out. The plan is divided into two parts: environmental improvement activities and modes of action.

Programmes and activities for environmental improvement: are (1) protection of strategic ecosystems; (2) better water; (3) clean seas and coasts; (4) more forests; (5) better cities and settlements; (6) a population and settlement policy; and (7) clean production.

Modes of action

To achieve the objectives that have been established, five modes of action have been developed: (1) environmental education and consciousness-raising; (2) institution-building, through the National Environmental System (SINA); (3) the production and democratization of information; (4) environmental and land-use planning; (5) global cooperation.

Environmental management is financed out of the national budget, external credits, technical cooperation, funds managed for other institutions, and resources of territorial agencies and regional corporations.

Development projects in the Amazon region

On 20 September 1996, Law 318 was promulgated by the Colombian Congress. Under Chapter II, Article 5 of this law, the Colombian International Cooperation Agency was established as a national government institution attached to the National Planning Department, with legal status and its own separate capital and administration. The main responsibility assigned to the Agency is the coordination, management, and promotion of all non-reimbursable international technical and financial cooperation received or granted by the country as official development aid to public agencies, together with any funds obtained through debt relief for social or environmental purposes.

In addition, Colombia has signed bilateral agreements with neighbouring countries to develop specific activities and programmes.

Colombian-Ecuadorian Agreement for Amazonian Cooperation

The Colombian-Ecuadorian Agreement for Amazonian Cooperation was signed in March 1979 in Quito. It was the pioneer bilateral cooperation agreement under the Framework Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation.

The agreement reiterates the "good neighbour" principles governing relations between adjacent countries, the traditional friendship between Colombia and Ecuador, and the preservation and rational use of natural resources in the Amazon region shared by the two countries. Special importance is assigned to improving substantially the quality of life of the inhabitants. The agreement also mentions the Putumayo Declaration of 25 February 1977 which deals with similar matters.

A Joint Colombian-Ecuadorian Committee for Amazonian Cooperation was set up as a high-level group in charge of studying and coordinating programmes of common concern. It was decided that its meetings would be chaired by an official with the rank of Ambassador.

The Joint Committee was assigned a number of tasks, including bilateral cooperation in assessing and investigating existing flora and fauna; better use of the agricultural, fishery, forest, mineral, and industrial resources of the zone; the expansion and improvement of roads and interconnections; and the establishment of a cross-border air service. Importance was attached to the creation of a regular transport service on the Putumayo and San Miguel rivers, the identification of engineering works required to make the rivers navigable, the joint coordination and provision of health and sanitation services, education, fishing, mining, and the marketing of products of local origin.

Plan on land-use and management in the San Miguel and Putumayo river basins

Under this bilateral treaty between Colombia and Ecuador, the two governments have initiated coordinated activities which are fully consistent with the "good neighbour" philosophy followed by Colombia in its dealings with adjacent countries.

In accordance with the terms of the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation, Colombia and Ecuador, aware that integration and being a good neighbour are inseparable from and consistent with an improved standard of living for the inhabitants of the outlying Amazon region, and that all this is contingent on the harmonious, sustainable, and rational development of its resources, signed the Bilateral Agreement for Amazonian Cooperation in March 1979. It was subsequently implemented in February 1985 with the Rumichaca Declaration, in which the governments reiterated their decision to promote cooperation to further the integral development of their border areas. They also approved the terms of reference for the Plan on Land-Use and Management in the San Miguel and Putumayo River Basins.

In application of Article XVIII of the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation, Colombia and Ecuador presented a joint request to the Organization of American States for technical cooperation and collaboration to begin preliminary studies for effective management in their border areas. In 1986 the proposal for the San Miguel-Putumayo Plan (PSP) was approved, and to assist in formulating it, the Organization created the Plurinational Project on Amazonian Cooperation.

To implement the planning, diagnosis, and evaluation stages of the project, Colombia chose the Colombian Water and Land Development Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture (HIMAT) and Ecuador the Agrarian Regionalization Department of the Ministry of Agriculture (PRONAREG). For the programme and project to formulation stage, Colombia designated the Amazonian Scientific Research Institute (SINCHI) and Ecuador the Institute for Ecodevelopment of the Ecuadorian Amazon Region (ECORAE).

The general objectives of the Plan are to develop the Amazon region by following an approach that combines management and preservation of the environment and biodiversity, while taking into account the potential and limitations of the area's natural resources and the needs and aspirations of present and future generations.

The PSP seeks to rationalize the impacts of disorganized settlement of Amazonian lands, and to help check the serious damage to the environment and natural resources caused by man's irrational use of the habitat.

Map 2: San Miguel-Putumayo River Basin Planning and Management Plan

The region covered by the Plan comprises 47,307 km² in the San Miguel, Putumayo, and Aguarico river basins and along the left bank of the Napo river, in Napo and Sucumbios provinces in Ecuador, and Putumayo department in Colombia (map 2).

The guidelines of the strategy for meeting the proposed objectives of the PSP are as follows:

Regional action based on an integrated approach; development of alternatives to ensure the preservation of the largest possible area of natural virgin land, including restrictions on new settlements; land-use planning and consolidation in the areas currently occupied, to guide them towards sustainable development; promotion of self-management in indigenous and settler communities; priority attention to the social needs of the most vulnerable groups; promotion of security, maintenance of peace and order, and harmonious development along both sides of the border; and strengthening of the management capacity of the agencies executing the official and private programs.

The implementation of binational activities, together with individual efforts made by the countries, will make it possible to deal with common problems and situations using a joint, planned approach, which is more effective than the traditional practice of stopping programmes at the border.

With this in view, the Plan is directing efforts toward the rational use and integrated management of natural resources, through productive projects appropriate to the ecosystem; the management of national parks and ecological reserves; restoration of the culture and traditions of indigenous communities; preservation of biodiversity; guidelines for farm production; and a programme of community consciousness-raising and training on the Amazonian environment. It also includes environmental education and research and the strengthening of community institutions as part of a training programme in which the community has the leading role in every case.

Thus, the Action Plan contains five programmes, each with its own projects, components, and activities, broken down as follows: environment; organization of production for sustainable development; attention to indigenous communities and groups; health and environmental sanitation; and community organization and training. The programmes, structured as modules, will make it possible to integrate fully the indigenous people, settlers, and the national, regional, and municipal officials involved, with self-management as a key to the success of the programmes.

The phase of pre-feasibility studies and approval of the general concept of the PSP by the two governments has been completed. The national entity in each country that will act as the executing agency is now being chosen. In Colombia it will be Corpes Amazonas, with responsibility for following up, coordinating implementation activities, monitoring projects, and supervising and managing resources. At the same time, mechanisms and procedures for obtaining external funds are being examined, to complete the financing of the various projects.

The total cost of the PSP has been estimated at US$200,870,000, of which 60.4 per cent is to be financed by the beneficiaries and 39.6 per cent by the national governments. Of the 39.6 per cent, 15 per cent will come from the governments, and the rest from international agencies, nongovernmental organizations, or countries interested in investing in the sustainable development of the region.

Table 1: Costs, contributions, and resources for the San Miguel-Putumayo Plan

	Cost	Country contributions	External resources
Programme	(US$)	(US$m)	(US$m)
Environment	23,212	4,237	18,975
Organization of production for sustainable development	143,288	116,666	26,322
Attention to indigenous communities and groups	8,357	1,847	6,550
Health and environmental sanitation	19,040	7,859	11,187
Community organization and training	4,742	725	4,017

The cost of each of the programmes and the amounts of the countries' contributions and the outside funds needed are presented in table 1, in millions of US dollars.

Efforts are being made to find non-reimbursable financing, to the extent possible. Such financing is currently quite limited; most international organizations use it for studies, and fund some programmes with concessionary credits and others with loans at interest rates and repayment periods that are very close to those prevailing in the financial markets. This complicates the process, since most of the projects are social in nature, with negative rates of return on capital, and cannot earn enough to attract investors. The benefit of the projects can be estimated is terms of the well-being of the community, environmental sanitation, and protection of the ecosystem and biodiversity, all of which have a significant influence on the future of mankind.

The Unit for Sustainable Development and the Environment of the OAS General Secretariat convened a meeting in Washington, D.C., in June 1996, of representatives of the countries involved and possible donors, including developed countries, international institutions, and nongovernmental organizations interested in the subject. The potential donors expressed an interest in the bilateral plans and indicated that they would look at them and consider their financial viability selectively and by country.

Colombian-Peruvian Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation

The Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation between Colombia and Peru was signed in Lima on 30 March 1979, to give greater importance to environmental preservation and the rational use of natural resources in the economic and social development of their Amazon regions.

The bilateral treaty attaches special importance to the Act Supplementary to the Protocol of Friendship and Cooperation signed in Rio de Janeiro on 24 May 1934, which had laid the groundwork for cooperation between the two countries in their Amazonian regions, and takes into consideration the Multilateral Treaty for Amazon Cooperation signed in Brasília on 3 July 1978.

Article XIV provides for the establishment of a Joint Colombian-Peruvian Committee on Amazonian Cooperation, a standing group to study and coordinate programmes of common interest to their neighbouring Amazon territories, in accordance with the treaty.

The Joint Colombian-Peruvian Committee for Amazonian Cooperation will promote assessments, research, cooperation, and joint action to expand and improve the road network and build other communications infrastructure in the border area. It will also look into the prospects for creating cross-border air routes, on protecting the ecology, and preserving the environment.

The Joint Committee is also supposed to conduct ongoing evaluations of compliance with the 1938 Agreement on Customs Cooperation, with a view to updating it and amending it to meet current needs.

Plan for the integrated development of the Putumayo river basin

With technical support from what was then the OAS Department of Regional Development and Environment under the Plurinational Project on Amazonian Cooperation, Colombia and Peru decided to draw up a binational plan for developing their common Amazonian border region in the basins of the Napo, Putumayo, Caquetá, and Amazon rivers, which has been adversely affected by unregulated settlement and by the incursion of Colombian guerrillas linked to drug trafficking and their counterparts in Peru (map 3).

The plan covers an area of 160,500 km². The most serious problem facing this area is the deteriorating quality of life and living conditions, which have been severely affected by the introduction of production systems and cultural and social patterns that are unsuited to the Amazonian ecosystem and are gradually destroying its biodiversity and irreversibly damaging its environment.

Map 3: Putumayo River Basin Integrated Development Plan

The enormous amount of territory involved and its distance from the centres of national government has enabled settlers eager for adventure and easy riches to occupy it unencumbered by planning or development criteria. The negative effects can be summed up as reduction of the habitat of the indigenous communities, lack of basic and social services, indiscriminate cutting of tropical rainforests, indiscriminate destruction of natural resources, sedimentation, and serious contamination of rivers and soil erosion, among other things.

The situation was further complicated by the arrival of drug traffickers attracted to the area by the facilities it offered them. To compound matters, settlers and traders discovered that Amazonian timber fetched very good prices on the markets of developed countries, and so they began indiscriminately cutting down native species, most of which were irreplaceable, using methods and techniques that led to desertification and sedimentation.

The Frontier Development Plan is intended to organize the abutting Amazonian territories and deals with the most sensitive issues, such as immigration, colonization, introduction by white settlers of inappropriate techniques of production and habitat maintenance and of cultural systems and habits foreign to the region, all of which have severely affected indigenous ethnic groups, polluted the rivers, and given rise to an illegal trade in live species in danger of extinction.

This binational plan consists of five programmes: natural resources and ecosystems, social development and infrastructure, trade and transport, productive activities and management, and institutional organization. In these programmes 12 projects have been identified, and the pre-feasibility stage has been completed for those that follow for integral and sustainable management of forests, natural parks, environmental education, integral fishing, management of wildlife in reserves, integral services for native indigenous communities, integral health, basic sanitation, and marketing.

The benefits of the plan are unquestionable. It means that understanding and joint management of the region and its problems, linked to the "good neighbourliness" that is an intrinsic part of Colombian foreign policy, will lead to binational activities carried out comprehensively to meet the basic needs of the people by means of decentralization and institution building. This will achieve a planned use of the land that will help to drive out the evil scourge of illegal crops and trade.

The plan is in the diagnosis and pre-feasibility phase, and steps are being taken to secure financing from governments, government agencies, and nongovernmental organizations, to ensure the success of the tremendous efforts that these countries have been making, together with the OAS, in this priority field of action.

Colombian-Brazilian Agreement for Amazonian Cooperation

On 12 March 1981, the governments of Colombia and Brazil, wishing to further bilaterally the purposes and objectives of the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation, signed the Agreement for Amazonian Cooperation under the terms of Article XVIII of that treaty, with a view to ensuring the rational development of the Amazon's resources, preserving the environment, and making use of the flora and fauna, in accordance with the principles of the Agreement for the Preservation of the Flora and Fauna of the Amazon Territories, dated 20 June 1973.

Article I of the Agreement reads as follows:

The Contracting Parties have decided to initiate a process of active cooperation to conduct joint activities and an exchange of experiences in the area of regional development and scientific and technological research as applicable to the Amazon Region, with a view to achieving the harmonious development of each of their Amazon territories, to the benefit of their people and while adequately protecting the ecology of the zone.

Special importance was attached to navigation on inland waterways and to regular passenger and cargo transport on the Amazon, Putumayo-Iça and Negro rivers, pursuant to treaties in force. Surveys and hydrographic charts of these rivers will be made and the necessary studies will be carried out to improve navigability.

Studies will be initiated in the areas of telecommunications, regular cross-border air services, road connections, and health and tropical-disease control and, in particular, measures for the proper management of natural resources.

To fulfil these objectives, the Joint Colombian-Brazilian Committee for Amazonian Cooperation was set up. It is responsible for coordinating projects established under this agreement and other programmes of common interest directed toward the harmonious development of the Amazon regions. At its first meeting, held in Leticia, Colombia, in 1987, approval was given to the Colombian-Brazilian Model Plan for the Integral Development of the Neighboring Communities along the Apaporis-Tabatinga axis.

Colombian-Brazilian Model Plan for the Integrated Development of the Neighboring Communities along the Apaporis-Tabatinga Axis

The Colombian-Brazilian border area, a major segment of the Amazon, consists of the Colombian Amazonian trapezoid, in the departments of Amazonas and Vaupés, and the state of Amazonas in north-western Brazil.

The national border on the Apaporis-Tabatinga axis, the shared waters of the Caquetá and Putumayo rivers, and the inevitable isolation from urban centres have led the communities to create neighbouring settlements, which have stamped the region with its own special imprint of mutual support and development.

It is for this reason, on the basis of the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation, that the Model Plan of the Neighboring Communities of the Apaporis-Tabatinga axis was approved (map 4). Work began under the Plan with the technical support of the OAS, and nine projects were designed: on productive activities, social infrastructure, social development, integral services to indigenous communities, public-health infrastructure, and institutional strengthening (urban development). The initial interest in the project continued to grow, and the diagnosis phase was completed; work is now progressing on the feasibility stage and on obtaining financing.

The Plan covers a large part of the common border area, but it only regulates half of the shared line. In 1991, at a meeting of the Joint Committee for Amazonian Cooperation held in Brasília, Colombia presented to Brazil a proposal to expand it to the remainder of the border area, from Apaporis to Piedra del Cocuy, where Colombia, Brazil, and Venezuela meet.

This proposal was well received, but Brazil claimed a lack of funds for it. It is badly needed to deal with the problems originating in these areas, since this is the source of the headwaters of the Negro river, an important tributary that joins the Amazon at Manaus.

The most serious problem in the sector is the increasing and highly dangerous pollution of the rivers of the Orinoco basin, the Vaupés, and the upper Negro by mercury and other elements from inappropriate gold-mining techniques. The violent attack on natural resources must be curbed by governments. The situation in the region is further aggravated by the presence of undesirables engaged in drug trafficking, common crime, and guerrilla warfare and the near or total absence of government authorities.

Map 4: Colombian-Brazilian Model Plan for the Integrated Development of the Neighbouring Communities along the Apaporis-Tabatinga Axis

It is hoped that the parties will once again give this problem the attention it deserves so that the activities and plans agreed on in the Bilateral Treaty may be carried out. The initial results were quite encouraging and provided incentives to the people in the region. The "good neighbour" policy exerted a strong influence and, despite the slowness of the work, has stimulated local activities of cooperation and understanding, which could surely be channelled into greater achievements.

Proposed Colombian-Venezuelan Amazonian Development Plan

At the Third Meeting of Foreign Ministers, held in Quito in March 1979, the Colombian Minister of Foreign Affairs proposed to Venezuela a Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation to take bilateral action on land-use planning in the rivers of the Orinoco basins region that drain into the Amazon. The involvement and interest of international agencies and nongovernmental organizations were at a high point at the time, so it appeared highly likely that the initiative would be well received.

This also completed the Colombian government's efforts to ensure the integral binational, sustainable management of its Amazon border areas, since the agreement would cover the areas starting at Piedra del Cocuy that were not already receiving special treatment. The initiative was welcomed, but no reply was received from the Venezuelan authorities.

Conclusions and recommendations

Programmes of technical cooperation with bordering countries take on added importance when policies and strategies designed as part of a "good neighbour" approach are to be put into practice.

The national parliaments should exercise appropriate legislative control and make sure that the laws and treaties they approve are implemented. This power should be used as a natural ally of the cooperation agreements, since the benefits they offer and the problems they would solve directly concern and affect above all the poorest groups in each country.

The good-neighbour policy has fulfilled its original objectives and maintains its validity as the most important and effective means for generating mutual trust. It is important to point out that confusion as to this mechanism or the deliberate assignment to it of the execution of plans and projects, while ignoring its legal function of putting international agreements into practice, has brought the system to a standstill, to the detriment of all the parties involved.

The management and coordination of international technical cooperation should be handled by the agencies and organizations in each country in charge of executing the development plans, under the strict surveillance, and with the ongoing evaluation and coordination of the ministries of foreign affairs, in fulfilment of their constitutional function of guiding the foreign affairs of government. The internal mechanisms of each government must be committed to giving the necessary priority to good-neighbour principles, since Latin America has already wasted decades in which declarations of principles held sway over bilateral and multilateral development plans.

The bilateral Amazonian cooperation plans have fulfilled the mandates proposed by the High Contracting Parties when they signed the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation. The political will of governments has materialized in various bilateral agreements and treaties, which have unquestionably generated activities in the border areas distant from the centres of power.

The participation of the Organization of American States (OAS), as a continental and hemispheric forum, in guiding and preparing the bilateral development plans has been one of the most important, most practical elements of Amazonian policy under the Framework Treaty, since it awakened an interest on the part of member countries in regions that had traditionally been forgotten and abandoned to their sad fates.

In the case of Colombia, the implementation of the plans has been regarded as a priority objective of border policy. With the Ministry of Foreign Affairs acting as coordinator, the various government institutions involved in the development of the Amazon have focused sizeable budgetary and professional efforts on financing activities related to the development of the Amazon.

The greatest needs in the outlying areas are found in these parts of the country. Major bilateral advances have been achieved with the neighbouring countries of Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil, countries with which Colombia has bilateral Amazonian cooperation agreements.

The micro-integration of border areas was achieved with the important ingredient of the Amazonian culture, which institutionalized such significant concepts as the environmental policy described above.

The bilateral plans have created an Amazonian consciousness and have led many professionals to specialize in various related disciplines. These are the people in charge of developing new environmental rules, and in this work the OAS has offered continuous technical assistance.

The development of the overall Amazonian policy has found its greatest ally in the bilateral cooperation agreements, because it is along the Amazon borders, where the sovereignty of one nation ends and another begins, that the concept of a "frontier of cooperation" must be institutionalized and strengthened. This frontier has no limits, since the regions are inseparable in their geographical and anthropological features.

The experience and the important progress made under the bilateral Amazon cooperation plans in effect in the region have made an important contribution to the overall Amazon policy. It is the responsibility of the Treaty Secretariat Pro Tempore to coordinate them so that they become additional elements of planning that will help in obtaining outside funds to finance the implementation of the bilateral projects together with national counterpart funds. This important action will put new life into the Framework Treaty and make it possible for the agreed Amazonian policy to become a reality.

It is suggested that the regulations and efforts made by the member countries that have signed bilateral Amazonian cooperation plans be regarded as in the regional interest. Colombia made this proposal during its term as Secretariat Pro Tempore in 1989, and it believes that the time is ripe to allocate resources obtained through the action of the Treaty authorities to practical projects, such as those prepared with the technical cooperation of the Organization of American States.

3. The Amazon Cooperation Treaty: A mechanism for cooperation and sustainable development

Manuel Picasso Botto

Introduction

The main purpose of this document is to give an overview of the institutional scope and programmes of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty executed on 3 July 1978 in the city of Brasília by the Republics of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Surinam, and Venezuela.

For reference purposes, we will begin by explaining certain unique characteristics of the Amazon river and the Amazon basin, followed by the goals and objects of the treaty and the corresponding treaty bodies, closing with a summary of the major on-going programmes and projects within the frame of this international instrument.

Unique characteristics of the Amazon river and the Amazon basin¹

- The Amazon region is known as the largest wet tropical forest. Its flora and fauna, including numerous plants and animals still unknown to science, make up more than 50 per cent of the global biota. It is estimated that over 56 per cent of the tropical forests of planet earth are found in the Amazon basin.

- The Amazon river, which runs through 6,762 km from its source in the snow-capped mountain of Mismi, in the department of Arequipa (southern Peru), is also the longest, largest, widest, and deepest river, and drains the largest basin in the world.

- The Amazon river discharges into the Atlantic ocean between 200,000 and 220,000 cubic metres of water per second, between 6.3 and 6.9 billion cubic metres per year, representing 15.47 per cent of all fresh water in the world. It also discharges approximately 1 billion metric tons of sediments per year.

- In the Obidos strait (Brazil), the Amazon reaches an approximate depth of 300 m, permitting access by large-draft vessels to Iquitos more than 2,300 km up river.

- The slope is very uneven in the upper basin, where it varies approximately 5,000 m along a straight course of 50 km. In the mid-lower stretch the gradient is less steep: from Iquitos (Peru) to its mouth the Amazon flows through 2,375 km with a gradient of only 4.5 cm per km.

- The width of the Amazon varies. During the rainy season, in some stretches the waters of the Amazon flood 20-50 km on both margins.

- The river bed extends over nearly 7,165,281 sq km. It accounts for 1.40 per cent of the total surface of the earth, 4.82 per cent of the continental surface, and 40.18 per cent of South America.

- The Amazon basin has very heterogeneous geographical and ecological characteristics, comprising territories located between 6,000 m.a.s.l. (the Andes mountains) and sea level. The lower basin is an immense biome of forests and waters. It is estimated that nearly 30 per cent of this region is formed by water and wet areas: rivers of diverse characteristics, lagoons, ponds, swamps, marshes, and flood-prone areas.

- The Amazon region provides undeniable global environmental services, such as control of the greenhouse effect, preservation of the hydric equilibrium of the atmosphere, circulation of nutrients, and conservation of biological, scientific, and cultural diversity.

- The Amazon is not an empty territory, although throughout most of the region the population density is low and nearly 60 per cent of it is urban. At present, in the lower areas there live approximately 22 million people assembled in native villages, modern forest populations engaged in extraction activities; and other populations, such as the Amazon population, grow at an annual rate of 3 per cent. There are nearly 379 ethnic groups, with a millenial tradition of adaptation to the heterogeneous conditions of the region and depositories of an incalculable wealth of knowledge and technologies.

Objects and bodies of the treaty

The implementation of joint efforts and actions to promote the harmonious development of the respective Amazonian territories, in a way that permits environmental protection and the rational use of the natural resources from those territories, is one of the main objects of the treaty. To this end, the governments undertake to exchange information and to execute agreements and operational arrangements, as well as the relevant legal instruments.

Other objects of the treaty include the promotion of the harmonious development of the Amazon region, understood as the equilibrium between economic growth and preservation of the environment, improving at the same time the living conditions of the peoples of the region.

The treaty assigns special importance as well to actions aimed at the full incorporation of Amazonian territories to the national economies, rational utilization of water resources; improvement of navigable waterways, and the importance of establishing the adequate physical infrastructure between the member countries, especially in the areas of transportation and communications.

Improvement of the health conditions of the Amazonian population, as well as prevention and control of epidemics, close collaboration in scientific and technological areas, development of tourism without detriment to native cultures, sustainable use of natural resources, and conservation of regional, ethnological, and archeological resources are other goals that deserve special treatment. The scope of application of this sub-regional cooperation instrument is the Amazon basin and adjacent territories with very similar characteristics.

The treaty encompasses the following bodies:

(i) The meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs is the highest body. It establishes the basic common policy guidelines, supervises and evaluates the general conduct of this cooperation process.

(ii) The Amazon Cooperation Council is formed by high-level diplomatic representatives of the contracting parties. It is responsible for supervising compliance with the goals and provisions of the treaty, and takes decisions on the performance of bilateral or multilateral studies and projects.

(iii) The Permanent National Commissions of each member country are responsible for the implementation in their respective territories of the provisions of the treaty, as well as of the decisions taken by the meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Amazon Cooperation Council.

(iv) The treaty's Secretariat is assigned, on a rotary basis, to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of one of the member countries to carry out the activities specified in the treaty and those ordered by the meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Amazon Cooperation Council. It is also responsible for actions relating to international technical and financial cooperation.

(v) The Special Commissions of the Amazon region, devoted to the study of specific problems or subjects, are formed by entities designated by the member countries, responsible for the coordination, follow-up, and correct implementation in their respective countries of the approved programmes and projects and for the submission of new proposals of common interest to permit compliance with the actions specified in the treaty.

The Organizational Chart of the treaty is set forth in annex 1.

Meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs

Pursuant to Article XX of the treaty, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the contracting parties shall meet whenever deemed convenient or appropriate, to establish basic common policy guidelines, consider and evaluate the general course of the Amazon cooperation process and take decisions for the achievement of the goals proposed therein. These meetings are held at the initiative of any of the parties, supported by at least four other member states.

The general policies that guide the course of the treaty from the time that it was signed are therefore based on the directives issued by the five meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member countries held thus far.²

The documents from the past five meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the treaty are: the Belem Declaration, signed at Belém do Pará, Brazil, on 24 October 1980; the Santiago de Cali Declaration signed at Cali, Colombia, on 8 December 1983; the San Francisco de Quito Declaration, signed at Quito, Ecuador, on 7 March 1989; the Santa Cruz de la Sierra Declaration, signed at Santa Cruz, Bolivia, on 8 November 1991, and the Lima Declaration signed at Lima, Peru, on 5 December 1995.

Upon the signing of the Lima Declaration, at the close of the Fifth Meeting of Foreign Affairs held at the initiative of the Government of Peru, it may be affirmed that the treaty entered a new promising consolidation phase: the decision to create a Permanent Secretariat and a new Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Education; the design for establishing a financial mechanism and an institutional network for research and protection of genetic resources, and the decision to negotiate an agreement on measures to prevent and control the contamination of water resources and its damaging effects have reshaped the institutional framework and enabled its prompt consolidation, lending even more vitality, cohesion, and continuity to this instrument, which has already acquired an internationally recognized profile and identity.

At this meeting, the first since the World Conference on the Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the ministers also discussed important topics and aspects relating to the Amazon forest, water resources, biological diversity, native peoples, environmental education, and hydrobiological resources, among other subjects.

The Amazon Cooperation Council

Pursuant to Article XXI, high-level diplomatic representatives from the Contracting Parties will meet annually as members of the Amazon Cooperation Council. The Council has the following responsibilities:

(i) supervises compliance with the objects and goals of the treaty;

(ii) supervises compliance with the decisions taken by the meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs;

(iii) issues recommendations to the parties on the convenience or timeliness to hold meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and prepares the respective agendas;

(iv) considers the initiatives and projects submitted by the parties and takes the relevant decisions for the performance of bilateral/multilateral studies and projects, to be implemented, as appropriate, by the Permanent National Commissions;

(v) evaluates the performance of projects of bilateral/multilateral interest.

Formally, council members may hold ordinary and special meetings, both of which must be convened by the Pro Tempore Secretary. The delegations must be headed by a high-level diplomat from each member country and composed of delegates, advisors, and other members accredited by the governments.

Until now, the Amazon Cooperation Council has met on seven occasions: in Lima, Peru, in July 1983; in La Paz, Bolivia, in September 1986; in Brasilia, Brazil, in March 1988; in Bogota, Colombia, in May 1990; in Quito, Ecuador, in July 1993; in Lima, Peru, in October 1994; and again in Lima, Peru, in November 1995. The eighth meeting took place in Caracas, Venezuela, during the first part of 1997.

Special Commissions of the Amazon region

Pursuant to Article XXIV of the treaty, seven Special Commissions of the Amazon region have been established for the study of the following specific problems and subjects: the environment; science and technology; transportation, communications and infrastructure; health; native affairs; tourism; and education. These Special Commissions are formed by the competent national institutions within each sector, linked into an active sub-regional communications network.

Special Commission on Science and Technology (CECTA)

CECTA was established during the Third Meeting of the Amazon Cooperation Council (Brasília, March 1988). Its purpose is to encourage and supervise the performance of regional projects and other activities undertaken by the member countries of ACT in the fields of science and technology; to act as a mechanism for obtaining funds from international sources and to coordinate the application of those funds in regional projects. CECTA has met on five occasions, the last two meetings were held in Lima in 1995 and Iquitos in 1996.

Special Commission on the Environment (CEMAA)

This Commission was established during the Third Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of ACT (Quito, March 1989), to carry through the common goals of environmental protection and rational use of the many and varied natural resources of the Amazon. The Commission has met on five occasions; its last two Annual Meetings were held in Lima in 1995 and in Santafe de Bogota in 1996.

Special Commission on Native Affairs (CEAIA)

CEAIA was established during the Third Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of ACT (March 1989), for the purpose of giving way to the national interest in native affairs, in accordance with the following guidelines:

(i) to promote the strengthening of the ethnic identity and conservation of the historical and cultural heritage of native peoples, especially of their lands and resources;

(ii) to promote the exchange of information between the various bodies, institutes, and/or institutions responsible in each of the Amazonian countries for the design and implementation of national policies on native peoples, with the purpose of enhancing mutual knowledge on the native peoples of the region;

(iii) to foster technical cooperation programmes incorporated in the policies of member countries on native populations; and

(iv) to carry out programmes and projects of common interest in areas such as the conservation, management, and use of natural resources in native territories, the rescue and development of native technologies, community development, human resources training, etc.

This Special Commission has met four times; its last meeting was held in Lima in 1995.

Special Commission on Health (CESAM)

CESAM was created in March 1988 as a sectoral coordinating body within the Health area, during the Third Meeting of the Amazon Cooperation Council, with the following objects:

(i) encouraging, coordinating and supervising the implementation of regional programmes and other activities undertaken in the health area by the countries parties to the Amazon Treaty; and

(ii) acting as a mechanism to obtain international resources from international cooperation and coordinating the application of those resources in regional programmes.

CESAM has met on four occasions; its last meeting was held in Lima in June 1995.

Special Commission on Transportation, Infrastructure and Communications (CETICAM)

The Fourth Meeting of the Amazon Cooperation Council (Santafe de Bogota, May 1990) established the Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Transportation (CETRAM). Later, its mandate was expanded by the Fourth Meeting of Foreign Affairs of ACT held at Santa Cruz de la Sierra Bolivia, in November 1991, to cover communications and infrastructure, and its name was changed to Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Transportation, Infrastructure and Communications (CETICAM).

Generally, the programmes and projects of this Special Commission are designed to establish strategies for the enhancement of different modes of transportation; prepare general plans and projects on transportation along the Amazon river to develop commerce and contribute to regional prosperity; promote the establishment of a ground transportation system (by road and rail); and encourage regional air transport; facilitate telecommunications; carry out pre-feasibility and feasibility studies on major inter-oceanic corridors; and identify alternative intermodal connections between the basins of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Plata rivers.

The assessment of environmental impact of projects in the Amazon, particularly of projects relating to transportation infrastructure, has become at present a fundamental training component for the members of this Special Commission.

Special Commission on Tourism (CETURA)

CETURA was created during the Fourth Meeting of the Amazon Cooperation Council (Bogota, May 1990). Its main responsibilities are the following:

(i) to promote training and organization of human resources and carry out market surveys on aspects related to tourism;

(ii) to promote the organization of meetings, fairs, and other activities to encourage ecological tourism in the Amazon;

(iii) to identify the effects of tourist-related activities upon natural resources and native communities, taking into account the particular environmental and cultural characteristics of the Amazon to incorporate them in the planning and development of projects;

(iv) to stimulate the complementary development of the special characteristics of each tourist site in the Amazon;

(v) to promote the exchange of experiences, research, and studies on different areas of tourism in connection with investments, credit lines, etc. in the member countries; and

(vi) to encourage cooperation between national, regional, public, and private institutions engaged in tourism-related activities, in accordance with the general goals of the treaty.

This Commission has met on three occasions; it held its third annual meeting in Lima, in June 1995.

Special Commission on Education (CEEDA)

Two decisions concerning education were taken at the Fifth Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty: the Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Education (CEEDA) was created as a mechanism to evaluate experiences and coordinate the design of educational plans adapted to Amazonian circumstances, and to promote the training and organization of human resources in the Amazon region, as well as respect for the cultural identity of its peoples. It was also resolved to design a common programme to promote environmental education and awareness at school level. To this end this Special Commission was required to organize a regional seminar to propose the guidelines, contents, and scope of manuals for this purpose.

Through the creation of this Special Commission, the governments implemented a tool to permit the inhabitants of the Amazon basin to benefit from educational programmes and projects adapted to their needs, and to participate in forging their economic potential and environmental conservation.

The First Ordinary Annual Meeting of this Special Commission, as well as the Regional Seminar on the Preparation of Manuals on the Common Program on Promotion of Environmental Education and Awareness at School Level will take place in 1997, in accordance with the schedule of pending activities.

Pro Tempore Secretariat of ACT

The Pro Tempore Secretariat is responsible for carrying out the activities mandated by the Treaty, the Meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Amazon Cooperation Council. It acts as a catalyst and promoter of efforts throughout the region, dynamizing the exchange of experiences, spreading scientific or technical information, and encouraging the formulation and implementation of regional projects. To this end, the Secretariat formulates and receives proposals; organizes and convenes seminars and workshops on specific topics; edits dissemination bulletins and publications; prepares projects to enhance knowledge about the region; promotes sustainable development in the Amazon; favours the conservation of biological diversity, and supports training for local populations.

The regulations of the Secretariat define its duties and responsibilities, namely:

(i) to supervise compliance with the goals and objects of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty;

(ii) to comply and supervise compliance with the resolutions adopted by the Meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Amazon Cooperation Council;

(iii) to coordinate with the competent authorities and bodies of the Amazonian countries details for the holding of meetings of formal and technical treaty bodies, to disseminate their results, and follow up the decisions taken thereby.

(iv) to prepare, compile, and store the official correspondence of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty, which will be transferred at the time of making the corresponding rotation (duties are exercised on a rotary basis);

(v) to keep the Permanent National Commissions of the treaty duly informed of the progress made by the various Special Commissions and the meetings and other activities of the Amazon cooperation process. The official communications between the Secretariat and the parties on the convening of technical meetings or meetings of the Special Commissions regarding substantive aspects of programmes, projects, and international cooperation are transmitted by diplomatic channels. The Pro Tempore Secretariat takes care that the Special Commissions observe the same procedure;

(vi) it is charged, in accordance with the mandates of the Meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Council and the Special Commissions, with the tasks of management, promotion, preparation of documents required for the financial negotiations, follow-up, and all that refers to the obtainment of resources for the financing of programmes and projects, as well as with the timely and efficient implementation and start-up of these programmes and projects. The projects, which may arise from initiatives of the Special Commissions or the Pro Tempore Secretariat, are submitted to all the parties for consideration by them, and their implementation is subject to prior and express approval of each of the concerned parties. The non concerned parties may present observations within a maximum term of 60 days.

(vii) to apply for, arrange and submit proposals for technical, scientific, and financial cooperation for the approval of the member countries;

(viii) to follow-up and make a general evaluation of on-going programmes and projects, and take appropriate measures for their timely and efficient implementation;

(ix) to protect and update all the documents concerning progress made in implementation of the treaty, bilateral agreements on Amazonian cooperation, and related instruments;

(x) to disseminate information continuously on the cooperation process, for the purpose of attracting positive attention from international organizations, other countries, and public and private organizations;

(xi) to prepare, in coordination with the Ad Hoc Consultative Committee and regional coordinating bodies of the Special Commissions, an annual workplan including the proposals for operational research plans and implementation of specific programmes and projects. The Secretariat must submit for approval annually the Work Schedule of the Special Commissions to the parties, and strive to hold meetings of all the Commissions prior to the Meeting of the Council in order that the latter may perform an adequate follow-up of their activities;

(xii) to submit detailed reports biannually and at the end of its period of office;

(xiii) to coordinate the activities of the Special Commissions of the Amazon Region with the respective Executive Secretariats;

(xiv) to convene, at the request of any of the member countries, the necessary technical meetings for coordinating the actions of the various bilateral and multilateral mechanisms of the treaty, and to deliver to the Amazon Cooperation Council reports on the results achieved, for the purpose of facilitating the evaluation of the Amazon cooperation process;

(xv) other duties and responsibilities that may be assigned to the Secretariat by the Meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Amazon Cooperation Council.

The duties of the Pro Tempore Secretariat are exercised on a rotary basis by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of the Countries Parties to the Amazon Cooperation Treaty. The respective Ministry of Foreign Affairs designates a high-level diplomatic officer to act as Pro Tempore Secretariat, supported by a team of diplomatic officers devoted full-time to this task.

Since the treaty was signed, the duties of the Secretariat have been exercised by the following countries: Peru, from October 1980 to July 1983; Bolivia, from July 1983 to September 1986; Brazil, from September 1986 to March 1988; Colombia, from March 1988 to May 1990; Ecuador, from May 1990 to January 1994; and Peru, since February 1994. This responsibility will shortly be transferred to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Venezuela.

The Pro Tempore Secretariat is assisted by the Ad Hoc Consultative Committee, composed of the Ambassadors of the governments of the parties accredited before the country in charge of the Secretariat. It is the duty of the Secretariat to exchange information and coordinate the actions relating to the Amazon cooperation process with this committee.

Specialists in each specific area of concern of the Special Commissions work at the Secretariat's headquarters and act as regional coordinators. It is their responsibility to promote regional projects; to implement actions that facilitate the process of exchange of information, to prepare technical documents, to update regional data banks, and to establish the necessary contacts for wider participation of institutions and experts at seminars, workshops, and meetings.

In recent years, the Secretariat has promoted a vigorous institutional mobilization of entities and sectors responsible for the policies and actions of the member countries in the Amazon region, reflected in a substantial growth of participation in the cooperation process that has benefited the treaty. The Secretariat has acted as a catalyst in coordinating the adoption of a common stand by the countries parties to the ACT at international fora devoted to the discussion of matters of interest to the parties. Likewise, the Secretariat has formulated several projects of regional scope involving a total investment of more than US$25m, with the support of prominent bodies of the United Nations, for some of which the financing arrangements are at an advanced stage.

The organizational chart of the Secretariat during the tenure of office of Peru is attached as annex 2.

Workplan

The Secretariat's workplan, approved by the Foreign Ministers at their Fifth Meeting, contains programmes, projects, and activities oriented at and designed for achieving the goals of the treaty, especially with reference to improving the quality of life of the population.

In accordance with the policy guidelines issued by the Meetings of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Amazon Cooperation Council, the workplan points at the adoption and application by the member countries of policies and strategies for sustainable development based on previously identified and common needs, prospects, and priorities.

(a) In the political and institutional areas, the workplan aims, among other things, to achieve the following objectives:

(i) to contribute to the reinforcement of the treaty's institutional base in each member country, supporting the action of the Permanent National Commissions;

(ii) to adopt clear mechanisms for the management of the Secretariat, so as to permit a fluid exchange and communication with the parties and to ensure due performance of its duties;

(iii) to strengthen the work of the Special Commissions of the Amazon region;

(iv) to foster the exchange of views between the member countries for the adoption of common positions at various international fora on matters relating to the treaty, and to achieve closer relations with different sub-regional bodies and mechanisms for the treatment of matters of common interest;

(v) to promote the adoption of agreements on specific subjects for the preservation of the environment;

(vi) to promote coordinating action between the political-diplomatic bodies of the treaty through the Special Commissions of the Amazon Region in the process of formulation of projects.

(b) In the technical area:

(i) to strive for the joint preparation of projects with a regional focus;

(ii) to lay down criteria for the identification and selection of projects, as well as follow-up mechanisms;

(iii) to evaluate the potential and limitations of previously identified projects, and to determine their priority level in terms of the common needs of the member countries.

This workplan is translated into specific items in the Operational Plans of each of the Special Commissions of the Amazon Region, which generally respond to the following objectives:

- In the areas of science and technology, to contribute to the development of regional policies and strategies based on those laid down by the countries parties to ACT, for the consolidation of science and indigenous technologies conducive to viable alternatives for the sustainable development of the Amazon region.

- Within the scope of action of the Special Commission on the Environment, to develop and implement environmental protection strategies, through the adequate management of natural resources, to permit an ecological equilibrium that guarantees the sustainable development of the Amazon region; and to encourage research on and dissemination of the efficient use of Amazonian biodiversity for the sustainable development of the region, promoting the exchange of experiences on the natural productivity of ecosystems, species, and genetic resources;

- on the subject of native affairs, to promote the adequate treatment of the problems of native populations of the Amazon, striving to safeguard and re-evaluate their ethnical and cultural heritage and ensure the protection of their lands;

- in the areas of transportation, communications and infrastructure, to have the member countries adopt and apply coordinated policies and strategies environmentally compatible with the goals of sustainable development of the Amazon region; and to incorporate the Amazonian territories to the economic activities of their respective countries, as well as to the integration efforts promoted through bilateral and multilateral actions in the context of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty;

- in the area of tourism, to strive towards the establishment of a common policy in the member countries for attracting tourism to the Amazon region without affecting the environment and the native populations, and to incorporate those populations insofar as possible into the activities to be implemented;

- in the area of health, to contribute to the improvement of the health conditions of the populations of the Amazon, with special emphasis on native communities, by strengthening primary health care programmes to provide adequate health services to Amazon populations, attending to the characteristics of the Amazon tropical climate and to the cultural heterogeneity of the Amazonian population, in terms of specialized health and nutritional services.

The programmes, projects, and technical activities are carried out through the Special Commissions and Permanent National Commissions. The Pro Tempore Secretariat is in charge of the follow-up and general evaluation of on-going programmes and projects and takes the necessary actions for their prompt and efficient execution.

Eight programmes have been identified within the scope of the Special Commissions, and each member country has been assigned regional cooperation responsibilities. In the specific case of the programmes of CEAIA, there are only seven; the programmes of CETURA are coordinated region-wide by the Secretariat. Those programmes are classified according to topics and comprise related projects and activities. A table detailing the various programmes is included as Annex 3 below.

With regard to the scope of the projects, the aim is to encourage the use of human resources and infrastructure existing in each country, and to implement projects of wide scope and high cost in stages to facilitate their financing. Another aim is to combine activities with training and educational components, dissemination of information, experiences, research, and studies.

Many of these activities are developed with funds from non reimbursable international cooperation. The member countries have yet to make regular contributions of their assigned regular quotas, although they do contribute human and financial resources for the implementation of national activities; each government acting as seat of the Pro Tempore Secretariat assigns funds for the installation and operation of the Secretariat.

The international cooperation provided by organizations and governments allows the treaty to carry out projects, especially in relation with the identification of potentials and natural resources management. It also supports the activities of the Pro Tempore Secretariat and the Special Commissions, permitting the exchange of experiences and holding of meetings, and translation in many cases of various national initiatives into regional projects. This process has activated and stimulated the work of the government institutions and sectors that make up the Permanent National Commissions of ACT and facilitates smooth and mutual inter-institutional relations between the parties.

Various international organizations have been providing support for the treaty in the form of non reimbursable multilateral assistance, namely: the European Union, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), with funds from the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), with funds from the Kingdom of the Netherlands; the Inter-American Development Bank, the World Bank, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO); the Organization of American States (OAS), the Corporación Andina de Fomento (CAF) (Andean Development Corporation), among others. The Governments of Finland and Canada have recently joined this flow of cooperation.

The Pro Tempore Secretariat has established similar links with prominent institutions through the signing of memoranda of understanding with the United Nations Environmental Programme, the Asociacion de Universidades Amazonicas (UNAMAZ) (Association of Amazonian Universities), the World Resources Institute (WRI), among others.

Principal ongoing programmes and projects

Within the frame of CEMAA

The Regional Strategies Project for Sustainable Conservation and Management of Natural Resources in the Amazon comprises three projects: "Zonificacion Ecologica y Monitoreo Geografico en el Amazonas" (ecologic zoning and geographic monitoring of the Amazon); "Capacitacion en el Aprovechamiento Sustentable de la Biodiversidad Amazonica" (training in sustainable uses of Amazonian biodiversity); and "Manejo de Recursos Naturales en Territorios Indigenas de la Amazonia" (natural resources management in native Amazonian territories). Their implementation is financed by UNDP-GEF, to contribute to the ordering of the territory as well as to the study, formulation of strategies, and evaluation of Amazonian biodiversity.

The Program on Ecologic Zoning and Geographic Monitoring of the Amazon, funded by IDB, covers two sub-programs: Technical Assistance for the Permanent National Commissions of the Amazon Cooperation Council and Assistance for the Harmonization of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). This last sub-programme complements the zoning project, which began with funds furnished by UNDP, aimed at harmonizing the methodological proposals of the aforementioned projects.

The projects on ecologic zoning and geographical monitoring of the Amazon aim to have the countries parties to ACT adopt and apply ecologic-economic zoning principles in the formulation of policies and strategies for ordering their territories, as basic tools and decision-making criteria, to contribute thus to the sustainable development of the Amazon region, the strengthening of national zoning institutions, and the identification of alternatives for harmonizing the hardware and software installed in the ACT member countries to make their national geographical information systems mutually complementary.

The Regional Project on Planning and Management of Protected Areas in the Amazon Region is funded with resources from the European Union and its purpose is to ensure the conservation of natural and cultural biodiversity by consolidating selected pilot areas and demonstration centres and establishing protected areas in the Amazon. This project also oversees, among other activities, the design of management plans for ecotourism. It is important to highlight, in this regard, that given the successful results obtained thus far in implementation, the parties have agreed to carry out the second stage of the project.

The following projects and research activities are being carried out with funds provided by FAO: Food Security, Nutrition and Natural Resources of the Amazon; Biodiversity and Food in the Amazon; Recovery of Native Foods; Nutritional Alternatives; Propagation of Promising Plant and Vegetable Species in the Amazon Region; Small Agrobusiness as a Factor of Sustainable Development in the Amazon Region; Sustainable Use and Conservation of Wild Fauna in the Countries of the Amazon Basin; Pilot Project on Management of Podoenemis Expansa; Forests, Trees and Rural Communities; Identification of Criteria and Indicators of Sustainability for the Amazon Forest, etc. These projects refer mainly to the knowledge, management, and evaluation of natural resources.

Finally, technical assistance from UNIDO is being used to carry out the project "Strategy for Environmental Quality Management in Three Member States of ACT: Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru," aimed at laying down policies for incorporating environmental and industrial factors into developmental actions undertaken in the Amazon region.

Within the frame of CETICAM

In accordance with the treaty provisions on the convenience of creating an adequate physical infrastructure between the member countries, especially in the areas of transportation and communications, member countries are developing the project "Transportation Network for the Amazon Region," as a basic planning tool and physical space for the implementation of regional transportation policies, environmentally compatible with the goals of Sustainable development for the Amazon region, and as a general framework for the development of various projects stemming from the integration needs of the region.

The first stage of this project foresees the formulation of a proposal on an Intermodal International Transportation Network for the Amazon Region, supportive of and environmentally compatible with the goals on sustainable development advanced for the region, and contributing to:

(i) the integration efforts of the member parties, promoted through actions performed within the framework of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty;

(ii) the full incorporation of their Amazonian territories into the scope of activities of their respective national economies; and

(iii) generation of a physical infrastructure compatible with the aspirations of the inhabitants of the Amazon region and the access needs of isolated population centres.

This first stage of this project has been funded by the European Union and implemented by the Empresa Brasileña de Planeamiento de Transportes (GEIPOT) (Brazilian Transportation Planning Enterprise).

The studies for the formulation of this proposal have been completed and the working draft was approved by the representatives of the member countries during a technical workshop organized by the Pro Tempore Secretariat and held in Caracas 3-6 December 1996.

The final version of the network, including specific information provided by the governments of the parties, is being prepared and will be circulated. The Fourth Ordinary Meeting of CETICAM held at Caracas approved this proposal.

Within the frame of CECTA

Funds provided by the World Bank's Economic Development Institute (EDI), the Government of the Netherlands, FAO, and UNDP are being used to carry out the project "Dissemination of Sustainable Technologies for the Use of Amazonian Biodiversity," and to publish important and widely disseminated technical documents within the frame of this project, such as: Diagnostico de los recursos hidrobiologicos de la Amazonia (diagnosis of hydrobiological resources of the Amazon); Experiencias agroforestales exitosas en la Amazonia (successful agroforest experiences in the Amazon); Recursos fitogenéticos de cultivos alimenticios y frutales amazónicos (phytogenetic resources of Amazonian food crops and fruits); Plantas medicinales de la Amazonia: realidad y perspectivas (Amazonian medicinal plants: reality and prospects); Biodiversidad y salud en las poblaciones indigenas de la Amazonia (biodiversity and health among Amazonian native populations); Uso y conservación de la fauna silvestre en la Amazonia (use and conservation of Amazonian wild fauna); Patentes, propiedad intelectual y biodiversidad amazonica (patents, intellectual property and Amazonian biodiversity); and Cultivo del pijuayo para palmito en la Amazonia (production of "pijuayo" for palmetto in the Amazon).

The document "Frutas y hortalizas promisorias de la Amazonia" (promising Amazonian fruits and vegetables) was recently published with technical and financial support from FAO. This work describes 52 plant species, and constitutes a valuable contribution for the study and knowledge of a series of plant products with economic and social potential by public and private institutions, researchers, technicians, and persons interested in the Amazon region and its incorporation to the local, national, and regional economies.

Within the frame of CEAIA

The project entitled "Programa Regional de Consolidacion de Territorios Indigenas a traves del Tratado de Cooperacion Amazonica" (Regional Program for the Consolidation of Native Territories through the Amazon Cooperation Treaty) was implemented with technical and financial support from the European Union, with the general aim of assisting certain Amazonian native communities of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru in the process of surveyance and legalization of the lands inhabited by them, and laying down conditions that may permit those communities to manage, preserve, and make rational use of the natural resources stored therein.

A regional diagnosis was prepared under this project and guidelines were issued on native lands, embodied in the recent publication of the Secretariat entitled "Tierras y aguas indigenas de la Amazonia: una experiencia regional" (native lands and waters of the Amazon: a regional experience).

The parties to the treaty commissioned the Secretariat, at the Fourth Ordinary Meeting of CEAIA held in Lima in May 1995, to formulate a new regional project for promoting regional support for processes of recognition and protection of native lands and waters in the Amazon, and for the sustainable management of biological resources. In this context, the Secretariat, in coordination with the national entities responsible for native affairs in each of the member countries, identified the respective national proposals and prepared a basic proposal for a regional project entitled "Programa Regional de manejo sostenible de recursos naturales en areas indigenas de la Amazonia" (Regional programme for sustainable management of natural resources in native areas of the Amazon), which was submitted to the parties for consideration.

Bearing in mind that efforts for the systematization of information on native Amazonian populations within the frame of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty are still incipient, the Pro Tempore Secretariat through the Coordination of the Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Native Affairs (CEAIA) proposed at the Fourth Ordinary Meeting of CEAIA to include the subject of native affairs within the system of SIAMAZ and not to establish a separate information subsystem. Based on this perspective, scattered public information is being collected and will shortly be presented in CD-ROM format.

Within the frame of CESAM

The process of formulation and consultation of the regional project "Promocion de la Salud en las Poblaciones de la Region Amazonica" (Health promotion among Amazonian populations) is being completed, involving financial aid from the European Union for the amount of US$1,821,396 and contributions from the concerned countries equivalent to US$1,278,089. The main object of this project is to reinforce community health services in the Amazon region through the development of a regional programme of training, technical assistance, and exchange of national experiences in health promotion in the Amazon.

The specific goals of this project should lead to the establishment of a pilot regional health programme designed to strengthen and foster cooperation in the area of health, and to raise the levels of capacity and management of health personnel, among other objectives.

Within the frame of CETURA

During the Fifth Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Secretariat was commissioned to formulate, in consultation with the parties, the Master Development Plan on Tourism and Ecotourism for the Amazon Region, as an instrument for promoting regional development and investments in tourism in the Amazon, with the support and active participation of public and private sectors engaged in tourism, environmental, and native affairs of the member countries.

The plan is being formulated on the basis of the regional project "Promicion del Desarrollo del Ecoturismo en la Region Amazonica" (Development of ecotourism in the Amazon region), designed during the Third Ordinary Meeting of CETURA held in Lima in June 1995, and the regional workshop that preceded it. The objective of this new proposal is to cover not only ecotourism, but also sustainable tourism as an activity that subsumes ecotourism.

Both the master plan and the regional project will be examined by the authorized representatives of the member countries at the Fourth Meeting of CETURA to be held in the city of Manaos.

Within the frame of CEEDA

The activities to be carried out by this Special Commission are the holding of its First Ordinary Meeting and the preparation, in accordance with the commission received from the Fifth Meeting of Foreign Affairs Ministers, of a common programme for the promotion of environmental education and awareness at school level, and, to this end, the organization and convening of a regional seminar to propose the main lines, contents, and scope of manuals.

Scheduled activities

The workplan of the Pro Tempore Secretariat includes, among other things, development of the following activities:

(i) to design plans and strategies for soil conservation and improvement in the region, adequate soil use and management, and promotion of new productive activities based on native species of flora, fauna, and micro-organisms;

(ii) to implement a programme for environmental education and awareness at school level, and to begin with book production for this purpose;

(iii) to negotiate a framework agreement on actions to prevent and control the contamination of shared water resources and its negative impact on human health, the habitat, and biological diversity as a whole;

(iv) the future negotiations of the Amazonian countries shall take into consideration the unique characteristics of the region. For this purpose, it may be necessary to evaluate the methods applied in other river basins, as in the basins of the Mekong, Senegal, Plata, and Rhine rivers. It will also be important to have available updated studies on the problem of contamination levels in the Amazon basin;

(v) to analyse and adopt systems for the registration of Amazonian genetic resources, and rules on protection of intellectual property and similar rules on protection of traditional knowledge, as well as on access to and intellectual property of Amazonian biogenetic resources;

(vi) to implement an institutional network for the protection of and research on genetic resources;

(vii) to follow a systematic approach to lay down common rules in the member countries on the sustainable use of the Amazon forest, and, in this connection, to support the initiatives of the member countries to implement the so-called "Tarapoto process" on sustainability criteria and indicators for the Amazon forest. To this end, the Secretariat has been able to obtain funds with international cooperation and to sponsor the holding of national evaluation workshops, one already held in Colombia, and others held in Peru and Ecuador. Likewise, the following actions are underway to expand regional cooperation:

(a) To conclude the reformulation and negotiation of financing by GEF of the project provisionally entitled "Accion para una Amazonia sostenible" (Action for Amazonian sustainability), and begin its implementation.

(b) To complete the process of formulation and consultation of the following projects: "Uso sostenible y conservación de la fauna silvestre en los paises de la cuenca del Amazonas" (Sustainable use and conservation of wild fauna in the countries of the Amazon basin); "Programa regional de desarrollo y promoción del turismo sostenible y ecoturismo en la region Amazonica por intermedio de las comunidades locales" (Regional programme for development and promotion of sustainable tourism and ecotourism in the Amazon region through local communities); and begin the design of the second stage of the regional project "Planificacion y manejo de areas protegidas de la region Amazonica" (Planning and management of protected areas in the Amazon region).

(c) To continue the work of defining the scope of transportation programmes under the Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Transportation, Communications and Infrastructure (CETICAM) and of the following projects: "Estrategias para promover corredores prioritarios de transporte en la Amazonia y estrategias para su ejecucion por partes" (Strategies to promote priority transportation corridors in the Amazon and phased implementation strategies); "Red de telecomunicaciones para la region Amazonica" (Telecommunications network for the Amazon region); and "La cuenca Amazonica y su factibilidad de interconexion con las cuencas de los Rios Orinoco y de La Plata" (The Amazon basin and feasibility of its interconnection with the Orinoco and Plata river basins).

(d) To pursue the task of defining the scope of and formulating proposals for the following projects identified by the meetings of the Special Commissions, workshops, and other technical meetings: "Consolidacion, manejo y aprovechamiento de recursos naturales en areas indigenas de la Amazonia" (Consolidation, management and use of natural resources in native areas in the Amazon); "Sistemas integrales de produccion para el desarrollo agrario de la Amazonia" (Integral production systems for agricultural development in the Amazon); "Levantamiento de palmeras de la region Amazonica con potencial economico y social" (Survey of palm trees of the Amazon region with economic and social potential); "Experiencia piloto en el manejo de la fauna silvestre en los paises de la cuenca Amazonica" (Pilot experience in the management of wild fauna in the countries of the Amazon basin); "Plan regional de manejo para la conservacion y uso sostenible del caiman negro" (Regional management plan for the conservation and sustainable use of black cayman); "Recuperacion de la productividad de los suelos afectados por la agricultura y ganaderia mediante el uso de terrazas y sistemas agroforestales y silvopastoriles intensivos" (Recovering the productivity of soils damaged by agriculture and livestock production through the use of terracing and intensive agroforest and jungle grazing systems); "Plan referencial de homogenizacion de los sistemas de control epidemiologico para los paises del Tratado de Cooperacion Amazonica" (Reference plan for standardization of epidemiological control systems in the countries of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty); "Prevencion de daños producidos por la contaminacion con mercuriales" (Prevention of damage caused by mercury contamination).

Dissemination

For its dissemination activities on topics relating to development indexes in the Amazon region, the wealth of biological diversity and natural resources, the inventory of projects under the treaty, legislation in force, bibliography, publications, studies, and other data on the environment, health, science and technology, transportation, communications, native affairs, tourism, and education in the Amazon, as well as research centres in and for the region, the Secretariat has used the following means to carry out this task efficiently.

Preparation of trilingual quarterly information bulletins and their distribution to government entities of the member countries, academic and research institutions interested in the Amazon, regional or state governments, members of National Congresses or Parliaments, cooperating governments and agencies, NGOs, the media, private enterprises interested in the development of the Amazon, participants at workshops and seminars organized or sponsored by the Pro Tempore Secretariat of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty.

Likewise, a Website has been placed at the service of interested governments, researchers, and organizations within the Internet system. Through this service, the Secretariat furnishes the information contained in the 10 information bulletins published thus far. There are plans to expand this service, which will soon present its most important publications. It has also begun the task of compiling all the publications issued to date by the Secretariat in CD-ROM format.

Finally, a significant number of publications has been issued by the Secretariat - the complete list is set forth in annex 4 - dealing with subjects of interest to the treaty. There is a prior mechanism of coordination and consultation for all publications in which all member countries participate, allowing adequate time for the parties to comment on the contents of the proposed publications.

Conclusions

It may be affirmed today that the treaty has a joint work programme in specific areas that involves the participation of increasingly more and diverse institutions from each of the eight member countries.

The Secretariat has strived to define paths, to reinforce consultations, to expand institutional participation and to present the treaty as an effective instrument for channelling regional initiatives into research in the sustainable development of the Amazon basin. To a certain extent, some of these goals have been attained.

The periodic holding of meetings of the treaty mechanisms has facilitated the adoption of decisions that support, reinforce, and expand the scope of common action. More than 40 meetings, seminars, or workshops have been held by the parties recently, to discuss substantial policy matters as well as specific technical topics. All of them have or will have concrete effects on the sustainable economic yield of Amazonian resources, improvement of the living standards of the population, reinforcement of the institutional network or on the political dialogue at governmental level.

The government signatories of the treaty, in accordance with decisions taken at the Fifth Meeting of Foreign Affairs Ministers, will shortly install a Permanent Executive Secretariat of the treaty in Brasília. An ad hoc working group was established to that end, and convened on various occasions to meet both in Brasília and in Lima to prepare a proposal that will be duly considered by the competent bodies. The change of status of the Secretariat entails a modification in the text of the treaty, which will be considered in due course by the respective National Congresses.

There is still a long road ahead for achieving full compliance with the treaty goals. The political will demonstrated by the parties shows that it is fully possible to reconcile interests and opinions for carrying into effect development plans compatible with sustainability criteria advanced in 1978 and internationally sanctioned by the Rio Summit on Sustainable Development in 1992.

There are still, however, huge and important challenges ahead. The future of the Amazon region, a subject on which there persist certain differences, must be gradually approached while the experience of horizontal cooperation continues to be consolidated. The results of this process, based on dialogue and exchange of information, should have a favourable impact on the adoption of common policies regarding technical cooperation, the use and conservation of natural resources and implementation of projects. Gradually, the result should be universal agreement on criteria and concepts, in order to arrive at a system of physical data acceptable to all for understanding the complex character of biological diversity as a transborder phenomenon.

This process will be strengthened when, as a result of the evaluation of the projects and actions that are implemented, the accumulated experiences are systematized; common operational criteria for the projects are defined; sustainable development models adapted to the unique characteristics of the Amazon are applied; and sustainable development policies and their national, regional, and international inter-relations are analysed and updated.

I thank this Forum, jointly organized by the Consejo Mundial de Aguas, the Asociacion Internacional de Recursos Hidricos y la Organización de Estados Americanos (Organization of American States (OAS)) for the opportunity of explaining the mechanisms and bodies of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty, as well as for the level of operativeness and coordination it demonstrates today. I trust that the exchange of information on the basins of the Plata, São Francisco, and Amazon rivers will contribute important concepts for all Latin America, and specifically for the representatives of the member countries grouped in CETICAM, which has, among others, the task of identifying alternatives of intermodal connection between the basins of the Amazon, Plata, and Orinoco rivers, taking into account the waterways and the physical characteristics of the region.

This task implies giving priority to the utilization of the extensive network of waterways in these basins and maximum intermodal integration with operative roads, to prevent the risk of negative environmental impact caused by new roads, with the consequent deforestation of huge areas and occupation of unsuitable land for agricultural purposes.

The objectives of this programme are consistent with other programmes of the Special Commission, such as the one on river transportation, aimed at designing general strategies and specific projects for the development of river transportation as a natural means of access and communication in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon river is the backbone of transportation.

Notes

1. D'Achile, Barbara, Brack Egg, Antonio, and Wust, Walter H., 1996. Uturunkusuyo: El Territorio del Jaguar. Perú: Parques Nacionales y otras áreas de conservación ecológica, 1st edn. Lima: De Peisa, Banco Latino.

2. In addition, the Presidents of the Amazonian countries have met twice in the city of Manaos, upon the initiative of the Government of Brazil: in May 1989 and in February 1992, at which times the Presidents issued the "Declaration of the Amazon" and the "Documento de Posicion Conjunta de los Paises Amazonicos con miras a la Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo" (Joint Document of the Amazonian Countries towards the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development).

Annex 1: Organizational chart of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty

Annex 2: Pro Tempore Secretariat of the ACT (1994-1997)

Annex 3: Regional programmes within the framework of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty

I. Special Commission of the Amazon Region on the Environment

CEMAA-1	"Zonificación ecológica-económica y monitoreo de las alteraciones en el uso de la tierra"
	Coordinator: Brazil
CEMAA-2	"Ecología, biodiversidad y dinámica de poblaciones"
	Coordinator: Venezuela
CEMAA-3	"Fauna silvestre"
	Coordinator: Suriname
CEMAA-4	"Recursos hidrobiológicos"
	Coordinator: Perú
CEMAA-5	"Defensa y aprovechamiento de los recursos forestales"
	Coordinator: Ecuador
CEMAA-6	"Planificación y manejo de areas protegidas"
	Coordinator: Colombia
CEMAA-7	"Unificación y/o interrelación metodologías para la evaluación de impactos ambientales, compatibilización de legislaciones ambientales e intercambio de informaciones sobre programas nacionales de protección del medio ambiente en la región amazónica."
	Coordinator: Bolivia
CEMAA-8	"Investigación animal"
	Coordinator: Guyana

II. Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Science and Technology

CECTA-1	"Inventario, uso, manejo y conservación de suelos"
	Coordinator: Guyana
CECTA-2	"Sistemas integrales de producción vegetal"
	Coordinator: Ecuador
CECTA-3	"Balance hídrico"
	Coordinator: Bolivia
CECTA-4	"Estudios e investigaciones en ciencias sociales"
	Coordinator: Colombia
CECTA-5	"Planificación y gestión en ciencia y tecnología"
	Coordinator: Brazil
CECTA-6	"Producción animal"
	Coordinator: Suriname
CECTA-7	"Desarrollo y adaptación de tecnologías para la amazonia"
	Coordinator: Venezuela
CECTA-8	"Recursos zoo y fitogenéticos"
	Coordinator: Perú

III. Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Health

CESAM-1	"Planificación general de la salud y sistema regional de información"
	Coordinator: Bolivia
CESAM-2	"Materno-Infantil y atención primaria"
	Coordinator: Brazil
CESAM-3	"Enfermedades tropicales"
	Coordinator: Ecuador
CESAM-4	"Saneamiento básico"
	Coordinator: Perú
CESAM-5	"Desarrollo y organización de servicios de salud"
	Coordinator: Venezuela
CESAM-6	"Desastres"
	Coordinator: Colombia
CESAM-7	"Medicina tradicional y salud en las comunidades indígenas"
	Coordinator: Ecuador
CESAM-8	"Medicamentos básicos, esenciales y genéricos"
	Coordinator: Guyana

IV. Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Indigenous Affairs

CEAIA-1	Conocimiento de culturas indígenas
CEAIA-2	Participación indígena en programas que le afecten
CEAIA-3	Atención Estatal a las comunidades indígenas
CEAIA-4	Educación en las comunidades indígenas
CEAIA-5	Salud en las comunidades indígenas
CEAIA-6	Legislación indígena
CEAIA-7	Desarrollo Regional y las Comunidades Indígenas
CEAIA-8	Coordinación de programación y sistema regional de información

V. Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Transportation, Infrastructure, and Communications

CETICAM-1	"Plan general de transporte para la región amazónica"
	Coordinator: Brazil
CETICAM-2	"Transporte fluvial"
	Coordinator: Bolivia
CETICAM-3	"Transporte terrestre"
	Coordinator: Colombia
CETICAM-4	"Transporte aéreo"
	Coordinator: Perú
CETICAM-5	"Comunicaciones"
	Coordinator: To be decided
CETICAM-6	"Corredores interoceánicos"
	Coordinator: Ecuador
CETICAM-7	"La Cuenca Amazónica y la factibilidad de interconexión con las cuencas de los ríos La Plata y Orinoco"
	Coordinator: Venezuela
CETICAM-8	"Infraestructura"
	Coordinator: To be decided

VI. Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Tourism

CETURA-1	"Plan de desarrollo turístico integrado y sistema de información turística de la subregión amazónica"
	Coordinator: Suriname/Guyana
CETURA-2	"Investigaciones de mercado, comercialización y promoción turística conjunta de la subregión amazónica"
	Coordinator: Venezuela
CETURA-3	"Apoyo a la información y capacitación turística de los recursos humanos de la subregión amazónica"
	Coordinator: Perú
CETURA-4	"Compatibilización de la legislación turística y facilitación turística de los para la subregión amazónica"
	Coordinator: Colombia
CETURA-5	"Evaluación de los efectos del turismo en el desarrollo sostenible de la subregión amazónica"
	Coordinator: Bolivia
CETURA-6	"Identificación de oportunidades de inversión, promoción de inversiones en servicios de infraestructura turística con contenido de integración"
	Coordinator: Brazil
CETURA-7	"Investigación en materia de infraestructura turística en la subregión amazónica"
	Coordinator: Ecuador

Annex 4: List of Publications edited by the Pro Tempore Secretariat of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (1994-1997)

Issued

Diagnostico de los recursos hidrobiológicos de la Amazonia (Diagnosis of the hidrobiological resources in the Amazon region). Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 162 pp. 1994. (SPT-TCA/No. 22)

Experiencias agroforestales exitosas en la Cuenca Amazónica. (Successful agroforestal experiences in the Amazon basin) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 195 pp. 1994. (SPT-TCA/No. 23)

Propostas de políticas e estrategias regionais para o aproveitamento sustentável dos recursos fitogenéticos de cultivos alimentíceos e fruteiras amazônicas. (Political proposals and regional strategies for the management of the fitogeneric resources of amazon nutritional crops and fruits) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 49 pp. 1994. (SPT-TCA/No. 24)

Manual de entrenamiento: Sistemas fotovoltáicos para electrificación rural. (Training manual: photovoltaics systems for rural electrification) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 194 pp. 1994. (SPT-TCA/No. 25)

Zonificación ecológica-económica: Instrumento para la conservación y el desarrollo sostenible de los recursos de la Amazonia. Memorias. (Ecological-economic zoning: instrument for the conservation and sustainable development of the resources in the Amazon region. Notes) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 382 pp. 1994. (SPT-TCA/No. 26)

Plantas medicinales amazónicas: Realidad y perspectivas. (Amazon medicinal plants: reality and perspectives) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 302 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 28)

Propuesta de Tarapoto sobre criterios e indicadores de sostenibilidad del Bosque Amazónico. Memorias. (Tarapoto proposal on criteria and indicators for the sustainability of the Amazon forest. Notes) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 189 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 29)

Memorias de la mesa redonda sobre microempresas agroindustriales como factor de desarrollo sostenible de la región Amazónica. (Proceedings of the Round Table on agroindustrial microenterprises as a factor for the sustainable development of the Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 264 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 30)

Biodiversidad y salud en las poblaciones indígenas de la Amazonia. (Biodiversity and health in the indigenous populations of the Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 312 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 31)

Inventario y análisis de instituciones y proyectos de conservación y desarrollo en la Amazonia venezolana. (Inventory and analysis of institutions and projects of conservation in the Venezuelan Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 157 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 32)

Inventario de proyectos y presencia institucional en la región amazónica colombiana. (Inventory of projects and institutional performance in the Colombian Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 136 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 33)

Perspectivas del turismo sostenible en la Amazonia. (Perspectives of sustainable tourism in the Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 125 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 34)

Uso y conservación de la fauna silvestre en la Amazonia. (Management and conservation of wildlife in the Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 216 pp. 1995. (SPT-TCA/No. 35)

Base jurídica del Amazon Cooperation Treaty, 4 ed. revisada y actualizada. (Legal framework of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty, 4th edn, revised and updated) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 300 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 36)

Legal framework of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty. 1994-1995. Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 104 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 37)

Comisión Especial de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Amazonia (CECTA). Antecedentes constitutivos, actas y anexos de las reuniones. (Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Science and Technology. Background, minutes and annexes of the meetings) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 138 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 38)

Comisión Especial de Media Ambiente de la Amazonia (CEMAA). Antecedentes constitutivos, actas y anexos de las reuniones. (Special Commission of the Amazon Region on the environment, background, minutes and annexes of the meetings) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 176 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 39)

Patentes, propiedad intelectual y biodiversidad amazónica. (Patents, intellectual property and biodiversity in the Amazon Region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 456 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 40)

Plan de trabajo e informes de actividades de la Pro Tempore Secretariat del Amazon Cooperation Treaty. (Work plan and reports on the administration of the Pro Tempore Secretariat of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 147 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 41)

Desenvolvimento e conservação na Amazônía Brasileira: Inventario e análise de projetos. (Development and conservation in the Brazilian Amazon region: inventory and analysis of projects) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 247 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 42)

Cultivo del pijuayo (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) para palmito en la Amazonia. (Cultivating pijuayo for palmito in the Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 153 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 43)

Frutales y hortalizas promisorios de la Amazonia. (Promising fruits and plants in the Amazon Region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 450 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 44)

Inventory of institutions and projects operating in the Amazon region of Suriname. Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 106 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 45)

El cultivo del camu camu (Myrciaria dubia H.B.K. Mc Vaugh) en la Amazonia peruana. (Cultivation of Camu-Camu in the Peruvian Amazon Region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 95 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 46)

Piscicultura amazónica con especies nativas. (Amazon fishing with native species) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 169 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 47)

Crianza familiar del majaz o paca (Agouti paca) en la Amazonia. (Smallholdings of majaz or paca in the Amazon region) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 43 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 48)

Comisión Especial de Transportes, Comunicaciones e Infraestructura de la Amazonia (CETICAM). Antecedentes constitutivos, actas y anexos de las reuniones. (Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Transport, Communications and Infrastructure. Background, minutes and annexes of the meetings) Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 299 pp. 1996. (SPT-TCA/No. 49)

Proposal of criteria and indicators for sustainability of the Amazon forest. Results of the regional workshop. Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Pro Tempore Secretariat. Lima, Peru. 149 pp. 1995. Publicación trilingüe: ingles, español y portugués. (SPT-TCA/s.n.)

Forthcoming

Tierras y Areas Indígenas en la Amazonia: Una experiencia regional participativa. (Indigenous lands and areas in the Amazon region: a regional participatory experience). 200 pp. approx.

"Estrategias y Acciones para un Programa Regional de Promoción de la Producción Sostenible y Utilización de Frutales y Hortalizas" 200 pp. Memorias de la Mesa Redonda sobre la Complementariedad de la Producción Frutihortícola Amazonica con el Desarrollo de Microempresas Agroindustriales en los Países del TCA. (Strategies and actions regarding a regional programme for the promotion of sustainable production and use of fruit trees and vegetables. Minutes of the Round Table on Complementarity between Amazon Fruit and Horticultural Production and Agro-industrial Microenterprise Development in the Countries of the ACT).

"Manual de Cultivo y Uso de Plantas Medicinales en la Amazonia" (Manual of breeding and use of medicinal plants in the Amazon region).

"Procesamiento a Pequeña Escala de Frutas y Hortalizas Amazónicas Nativas e Introducidas - Manual Técnico". 140 pp. approx. (Small-scale processing of native and imported fruits and vegetables of the Amazon region - technical manual).

In Preparation

Comisión Especial de Turismo de la Amazonia (CETURA). Antecedentes constitutivos, actas y anexos de las reuniones. 250 pp. approx. (Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Tourism (CETURA). Background, minutes and appendixes of the meetings).

Comisión Especial de Salud de la Amazonia (CESAM). Antecedentes constitutivos, actas y anexos de las reuniones. 250 pp. approx. (Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Health (CESAM). Background, minutes and appendixes of the meetings).

Comisión Especial de Asuntos Indígenas de la Amazonia (CEAIA). Antecedentes constitutivos, actas y anexos de las reuniones. 350 pp. (Special Commission of the Amazon Region on Indigenous Affairs (CEAIA). Background, minutes and appendixes of the meetings).

Memorias del Seminario-Taller "Propuesta Metodológica para la Zonificación Ecológica-Económica para la Amazonia". 500 pp. approx. (Proceedings of the Seminar Workshop "Metodological Proposal for the Participatory Ecological-Economical Zoning for the Amazon Region.")

Inventario de Proyectos y Presencia Institucional en la Región Amazonica Peruana. 80 pp. approx. (Inventory of projects and institutional performance in the Peruvian Amazon region).

Informe de Actividades y de Gestión de la Pro Tempore Secretariat. Perú. SPT-TCA. 100 pp. approx. (Reports on the activities and administration of the Pro Tempore Secretariat of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty).

Video

Manual de Procesamiento de Frutas y Hortalizas (Manual of fruit and vegetable processing).

CD-ROM

Bases de Datos sobre Poblaciones Indígenas de la Amazonia (Database on indigenous populations in the Amazon region).

Base de Datos sobre Poblaciones Indígenas de la Región Amazónica Peruana (Database on indigenous populations in the Peruvian Amazon region).

Colección de publicaciones de la Pro Tempore Secretariat (1994-1997) (Compilation of publications edited by the Pro Tempore Secretariat of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty 1994-1997).